Mencius

Mencius: A Brief Introduction

Mencius (372–289 BCE), born Meng Ke (孟轲) with the courtesy name Ziyu (子舆; alternative forms Ziche or Ziju remain debated), was a native of Zou State (modern Zoucheng, Shandong). Revered as the "Second Sage" alongside Confucius, he stands among preeminent philosophers, educators, and political theorists of China’s Warring States period.

 

Life Journey

• Early Adversity: His father died young, leaving him solely under the care of his mother. The legendary "Three Moves by Mother Meng" (孟母三迁) epitomizes her dedication to cultivating his intellectual environment.

   

• Travels of Persuasion: Like Confucius, he toured states—Qi, Liang (Wei), Song, Teng, and Lu—advocating his ideals to rulers. Despite his eloquence, none adopted his policies.

   

• Legacy Building: Returning home in later life, he taught disciples and co-authored the Mencius (《孟子》), a seminal text in seven chapters totaling 34,000 characters. He died in 289 BCE during King Nan of Zhou’s reign.

   

Philosophical Contributions

1. Expansion of Confucianism:

    

   • Developed Confucius’ ideas into a systematic philosophy centered on innate human goodness (性善论).

      

   • Pioneered people-centered governance (民本思想), declaring: "The people are paramount; the state follows; the ruler matters least" (民为贵，社稷次之，君为轻).

      

2. Ethical Innovations:

    

   • Advocated moral discretion (权) over rigid dogma, emphasizing context-sensitive virtue.

      

   • Framed benevolent rule (仁政) as a ruler’s sacred duty: "Treat the elderly as your own elders; care for others’ children as your own" (老吾老以及人之老，幼吾幼以及人之幼).

      

3. Metaphysical Foundations:

    

   • Asserted that "Fulfilling one’s mind reveals one’s nature; fulfilling one’s nature reveals Heaven" (尽其心者，知其性也；知其性，则知天矣), bridging ethics and cosmology.

      

Historical Impact

• Tang-Song Revival: Han Yu (768–824) enshrined him in Confucianism’s "Orthodox Lineage" (道统) in On the Origin of the Way (《原道》).

   

• Canonization: Zhu Xi (1130–1200) elevated the Mencius into the Four Books (四书), making it core curriculum for imperial examinations until 1905.

   

• Global Legacy: His ideas permeate East Asian ethics, jurisprudence, and statecraft. UNESCO recognized the Mencius as part of humanity’s documentary heritage.

   

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Mencius' Wikipedia

full name	Mencius
character	Ziche/Ziyu (Controversial)
The era in which it is located	the Warring States period
Ethnic groups	Huaxia ethnic group
one's native heath	Zouguo (now Zoucheng, Shandong)
date of birth	Around 372 BC, some say around 385 BC
Date of death	289 BC, some say around 304 BC
Main achievements	Representative figures of Confucianism
Main works	mencius
My real name	Mencius
honorific	Mencius
Foreign name	Mencius

 

 

Key Concepts in Mencius’ Philosophy

Mencius transformed Confucianism from ethical guidelines into a holistic philosophy of human potential and political accountability—a legacy resonating across millennia.

 

Mencius' Early Education

Mencius descended from the Mengsun clan (孟孙氏), a noble lineage of Lu. After the clan's decline, one branch migrated to Zou State—Mencius' ancestral line.

 

The Teacher Controversy: Zisi or Zisi's Disciples?

• Sima Qian's Claim:
  The Records of the Grand Historian states Mencius "studied under a disciple of Zisi (Kong Ji, Confucius' grandson)."

   

• Mencius' Own Words:
  He clarified: "I never studied directly under Confucius; I learned privately from others" (予未得为孔子徒也，子私淑诸人也).

   

• Zhu Xi's Interpretation:
  "Privately" (私) implies indirect transmission; "others" (人) refers to Zisi's disciples.

   

• Chronological Resolution:
  Historical timelines disprove direct mentorship:

   

  • Zisi (b. c. 483 BCE) died decades before Mencius' birth (372 BCE).

     

  • Duke Mu of Lu (r. 415–383 BCE) reigned earlier than Mencius' era.
    Conclusion: Mencius studied under Zisi's disciples, not Zisi himself.

     

Mother Meng: The Architect of His Character

Zhao Qi's Preface to Mencius emphasizes:

 

"Mencius possessed innate virtue but lost his father young. His education was shaped by his mother's Three Moves."

 

The Three Moves (孟母三迁):

 

1. Near a Cemetery: Young Mencius mimicked funeral rites → "Unfit for a child!"

    

2. By a Marketplace: He imitated merchants' haggling → "No place to raise a scholar!"

    

3. Beside a School: He began emulating scholarly rituals → "Here my son belongs!"

    

Other Influential Teachings:

 

• "Cutting the Loom" (断机教子):
  When Mencius neglected studies, Mother Meng severed her half-woven cloth, warning: "Abandoning learning is like cutting this fabric—all effort wasted!"

   

• Ethical Modeling:
  Her insistence on propriety (e.g., refusing improperly presented meat) instilled his lifelong integrity.

   

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Key Educational Impacts

Mencius' early education—a blend of maternal sacrifice and intellectual discipleship—laid the foundation for his reimagining of Confucian ethics as a dynamic, human-centered philosophy.

 

Mencius's Diplomatic Missions to Qi and Song

Mencius held Confucius in the highest esteem. In Gongsun Chou, he stated: "Since humanity began, there has never been one greater than Confucius." He also declared: "My wish is to learn from Confucius." Mencius traveled to various states, including Qi, Song, Teng, Wei, and Lu, for over twenty years. The exact timeline of his journeys cannot be precisely determined today, but the general sequence and context can be reconstructed based on records in the book Mencius.

 

"Having lost his father early in life, he was nurtured by his mother's instruction, including her famous three moves." Like Confucius, Mencius grew up under his mother's guidance. Historical texts record many stories of Mother Meng's teachings, and her profound influence through words and deeds played a crucial role in shaping Mencius into the "Second Sage" (Yasheng).

 

Mencius inherited Confucius's doctrine of benevolent governance (renzheng). During an era marked by constant warfare and shifting alliances (the "Vertical and Horizontal" period), Mencius, as a penetrating thinker, recognized the defining characteristics and trends of his time and developed his own philosophical system. Like Confucius, he sought to translate Confucian political theory and statecraft into concrete governing principles and promote them throughout the land. At that time, thinkers routinely traveled to persuade various feudal lords to adopt their political ideas. It was against this social backdrop that Mencius began his journeys between states, advocating his political doctrines to their rulers.

 

Mencius embarked on his travels with disciples sometime before the age of 45. His first visit to Qi occurred during the reign of King Wei of Qi (r. 356–320 BC). At that time, Kuang Zhang bore the stigma of being "unfilial," yet Mencius "associated with him and treated him with courtesy." In Qi, Mencius promoted his doctrine that "benevolent governance is invincible" (renzheng wudi). However, he found little success there. He even declined King Wei's parting gift of "one hundred yi of fine gold" (jianjin) and left the state.

 

Around the 28th year of King Wei of Qi (approximately 329 BC), when Prince Yan of Song declared himself the ruler (later known as King Kang of Song), Mencius traveled to Song. During his stay in Song, the future Duke Wen of Teng (then still the Crown Prince) passed through Song on his way to Chu and met Mencius. "Mencius spoke about the innate goodness of human nature (xing shan) and constantly invoked the examples of Yao and Shun." When the Crown Prince returned from Chu, he met Mencius again in Song. Mencius said to him: "Does the Crown Prince doubt my words? The Way (Dao) is one and only!" This meant that by diligently studying and emulating the ancient sage kings (xian wang), the Crown Prince could effectively govern the state of Teng.

 

Mencius's Return to Zou and Journey to Teng

Not long after, Mencius accepted a gift of seventy yi of gold from the ruler of Song and departed for his native state of Zou. As recorded in Mencius·Liang Hui Wang II, a conflict had arisen between Zou and Lu. Duke Mu of Zou asked Mencius: "Thirty-three of my officials died in the conflict, yet none of the common people died defending them. If I punish the people, there are too many to execute; if I do not punish them, I resent their watching their superiors perish without lifting a hand. What should I do?"

 

Mencius replied: "In years of famine, your people—the old and weak—choked in ditches while the able-bodied scattered in all directions, numbering nearly a thousand. Yet your granaries were full, and your treasuries overflowed, while none of your officials reported the suffering. This shows the negligence of superiors who oppress those below." He added that this echoed Zengzi’s teaching: "How you treat others will be how they treat you." Now, he concluded, "Your people have their chance to repay. Do not blame them!"

 

When Duke Ding of Teng died, Duke Wen of Teng (then Crown Prince) sent his minister Ran You twice to Zou to consult Mencius on funeral rites. After Duke Wen ascended the throne, Mencius traveled to Teng. The new ruler personally sought Mencius’s counsel on governance. Mencius declared: "The people’s welfare cannot be delayed." He argued that only when people have stable livelihoods can they develop stable morality and social order. After securing their basic needs, they must be educated in "human relations" (renlun), for "when moral principles are clarified by superiors, the common people will bond harmoniously below."

 

Duke Wen then sent his minister Bi Zhan to inquire about the "well-field system" (jingtianzhi), a land distribution model. Mencius explained: "The practice of benevolent governance must begin with defining land boundaries." After detailing the system’s principles, he concluded: "This is a general outline—you and your ruler may adapt it as needed."

 

Later, the agrarian philosopher Xu Xing arrived in Teng from Chu. Xu advocated that rulers should farm alongside the people to earn their food, opposing exploitation and oppression. He promoted barter trade based on equivalent quantities or weights, insisting items of equal measure should have equal value. Mencius refuted Xu by targeting his smallholder egalitarianism, which denied social division of labor. Mencius expounded on the "diversity of things" (wu zhi bu qi), arguing that inherent differences justify varied values. He further defended social hierarchy through the distinction between "mental laborers" (laoxin) and "manual laborers" (laoli), framing this division as the natural foundation of governance—thereby rationalizing class distinctions.

 

Mencius's Journey to the State of Wei

Mencius clearly recognized that Teng, struggling for its own survival, was in no position to implement his political doctrines. In the 15th year of King Hui of Liang’s later reign (320 BC), he left Teng for Wei (also known as Liang). By then, Mencius was fifty-three years old.

 

Upon meeting Mencius, King Hui asked: "Venerable sir, you have come from afar without regard to the distance. Surely you have plans to benefit my state?" Mencius, who vehemently opposed rulers prioritizing profit, replied: "Why must Your Majesty speak of profit? I have only the teachings of benevolence and righteousness to offer."

 

At the time, Liang (Wei) had suffered repeated defeats by rival states. King Hui lamented to Mencius: "The might of Jin [Wei’s predecessor] was once unmatched in the world—this you know. Yet during my reign, we were defeated by Qi in the east, where my eldest son perished; we lost seven hundred li of territory to Qin in the west; and we were humiliated by Chu in the south. I am shamed by this. I wish to avenge the dead—tell me how!"

 

In response, Mencius outlined his vision for implementing benevolent governance (renzheng) among the people. He asserted that if this were done, even troops "armed only with wooden clubs could withstand the armored soldiers of Qin and Chu." However, while King Hui sought concrete strategies for revenge, Mencius offered abstract principles, which inevitably failed to gain the king’s serious consideration.

 

The following year, King Hui died and was succeeded by his son, King Xiang of Liang. Mencius formed an unfavorable impression of the new ruler, remarking that he "did not resemble a sovereign." Meanwhile, in Qi, King Xuan had ascended the throne following King Wei’s death. Seizing this opportunity, Mencius departed Wei and returned to Qi.

 

Mencius's Second Journey to Qi

Around 318 BC (the second year of King Xuan of Qi’s reign), Mencius returned to Qi, where he received respectful treatment. At their first meeting, King Xuan inquired: "Can you tell me about the deeds of Duke Huan of Qi and Duke Wen of Jin?" Mencius replied: "Disciples of Confucius never spoke of the affairs of Dukes Huan and Wen, so these stories have not been transmitted. I have not heard them. If I must speak, let me discuss the Way of True Kingship (wangdao)."

 

While King Xuan aspired to emulate the hegemonic ambitions of Qi’s Duke Huan and Jin’s Duke Wen, Mencius advocated modeling governance on the ancient sage kings (xian wang) and implementing "benevolent governance" (renzheng). His doctrines of "protecting the people to achieve true kingship" (bao min er wang) and "securing the people’s livelihoods" (zhi min zhi chan)—though aligned with the long-term interests of the feudal landlord class—were dismissed as "clinging to outdated ways, ignorant of practical affairs" (shou jiu shu, bu zhi shi wu), failing to address Qi’s urgent need for "wealth and military strength."

 

In 314 BC, King Kuai of Yan abdicated in favor of his minister Zi Zhi, triggering civil war in Yan. Seizing the opportunity, King Xuan of Qi invaded Yan and conquered it within fifty days. When other feudal lords plotted retaliation, King Xuan asked Mencius: "How should I respond?" Mencius advised: "Swiftly issue orders to return the captives (old and young), halt the seizure of Yan’s sacred vessels, consult the Yan people, install a new ruler, and withdraw your troops—this may still quell the conflict."

 

King Xuan ignored this counsel. When "the people of Yan rebelled" (Yan ren pan), he confessed to Mencius: "I deeply regret not heeding you."

 

Despite frequent counsel, Mencius’s ideas were never implemented. Though he had hoped King Xuan would adopt his political vision, the ruler merely treated him as a venerated scholar—respecting his wisdom without embracing his ideals. Realizing this, Mencius prepared to leave. King Xuan sent a messenger to dissuade him: "I wish to grant you a residence in the capital (Zhongguo), support your disciples with ten thousand zhong of grain, and make you a model (jinshi) for all officials and citizens." This offer, however, was a bid to use Mencius as a figurehead to burnish the king’s reputation for honoring worthies—not a sincere commitment to his ideals.

 

As recorded in Mencius·Gongsun Chou II, Mencius lingered for three nights at the border town of Zhou while departing Qi. When questioned about his delay, he explained: "My lingering three nights in Zhou still feels too hasty. I hoped the king might change his mind. Had he done so, he would have recalled me... Had he employed me, not only Qi’s people but all under Heaven would have found peace."

 

To another who remarked, "You seem displeased, Master," Mencius declared:
"Every five hundred years, a True King arises; between them, great sages emerge. From the Zhou’s founding, over seven centuries have passed. Judging by the cycle, it is time; observing the age, the moment is ripe. But Heaven does not yet will peace for the world—for if it did, who but me could achieve it? Why should I be displeased?"

 

Invoking his cyclical view of history, Mencius believed a "True King" (wang) would soon unite the realm. He had placed his hopes in King Xuan of Qi, yearning to reshape the world through the state. With those aspirations unfulfilled, he departed at last.

 

Mencius's Return to Song

Qi and Chu had previously formed a vertical alliance (hezong) against Qin. However, the Qin strategist Zhang Yi deceived King Huai of Chu by promising territorial gains, inducing him to sever ties with Qi. After Qi-Chu relations collapsed and Chu realized the deception, Chu launched a major offensive against Qin in 312 BC but suffered two devastating defeats.

 

Amid rising Qin-Chu tensions, Mencius traveled from Qi to Song. At Shiqiu, he encountered the philosopher Song Xing (also known as Song Keng). As recorded in Mencius·Gaozi II, Song Xing planned to persuade Qin and Chu to halt their war. Mencius asked what rationale he would use. Song Xing replied: "I will argue that war is against their interests**."

 

Mencius—staunchly opposed to framing arguments in terms of profit—insisted on appealing to benevolence and righteousness (renyi):

 

"If you persuade the kings of Qin and Chu using 'profit,' and they halt their armies out of desire for gain, their soldiers will rejoice in the ceasefire only because they crave profit**."
He warned:
"When rulers and ministers, fathers and sons, older and younger brothers abandon benevolence and righteousness and embrace profit in their dealings, the state’s destruction is inevitable."
Conversely, he argued:
"If they reject profit and embrace benevolence and righteousness**, true kingship will follow. Why must we speak of 'profit'?"
He concluded pointedly: "The ancient kings’ vision was great indeed—but your approach, sir, is inadmissible."

 

By the time of this visit, the ruler of Song—King Yan of Song (who had earlier declared himself king)—was attempting to implement "royal governance" (wangzheng). Mencius’s disciple Wan Zhang expressed concern: "Song is a small state. If it practices royal governance, Qi and Chu may resent it and invade—what then?"

 

Mencius invoked historical precedent:

 

"When Tang and Wu practiced royal governance, their campaigns rescued the people from tyranny like saving them from fire or flood. They executed cruel rulers and won universal support, thus becoming invincible under Heaven**."
He assured Wan Zhang:
"If Song truly governs as a king should, all within the Four Seas will look to it with hope, longing for its ruler. Though Qi and Chu are powerful, what then is to be feared**?"

 

 

 

Mencius's Journey to Lu and Final Retirement

Not long after, Mencius left Song for Lu. At that time, Duke Ping of Lu was about to appoint Mencius’s disciple Yuezhengzi to high office. The duke planned to visit Mencius but canceled upon hearing slander from his favored courtier Zang Cang. When Yuezhengzi reported this, Mencius remarked with resignation:
"My failure to meet the Duke of Lu is Heaven’s will. How could the son of Zang thwart Heaven’s design?"
Now in his sixties, Mencius returned to his native state of Zou, ending his decades of travels.

 

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Core Philosophical Teachings

Mencius’s philosophy centers on ren (benevolence), yi (righteousness), and shan (innate goodness). Though The Book of Mencius was compiled by disciples, it faithfully records his teachings:

 

1. Human Nature: The Doctrine of Innate Goodness (性善论)

• All humans possess four innate virtues: ren, yi, li (propriety), and zhi (wisdom).

   

• These virtues can be cultivated through introspection and moral refinement; neglect leads to their erosion.

   

2. Governance: Benevolent Rule (仁政) and the Kingly Way (王道)

• Essence of Benevolent Rule:

   

  • "Lighten punishments, reduce taxes"

     

  • "He who tyrannizes his people invites assassination and the fall of his state"

     

  • Historical mandate: Dynasties rose through benevolence (ren), fell through its absence.

     

• People-Centered Governance:

   

  • Prioritize agriculture and people’s welfare: "When the elderly wear silk and eat meat, and the masses lack neither food nor warmth—no ruler failing under such conditions has ever held the Mandate of Heaven" (Liang Hui Wang I).

     

  • "The people are paramount; the state comes next; the ruler is least" (Mín Guì Jūn Qīng).

     

• Duty to Resist Tyranny:

   

  • Ministers may depose rulers who ignore remonstrance; subjects may execute despots like Jie and Zhou, who are "outlaws, not rightful kings."

     

• Rejection of Hegemony:

   

  • Condemned conquest through war (霸道); advocated winning hearts through virtue: "The benevolent have no enemies" (renzhe wudi).

     

3. Ethics: Righteousness Above Life (舍生取义)

• "Life is what I desire; righteousness is also what I desire. If I cannot have both, I will give up life to preserve righteousness." (Gaozi I)

   

• Ritual and Righteousness (liyi) as non-negotiable guides:

   

  • "What good are riches of ten thousand zhong if gained by abandoning righteousness?"

     

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Mencius’s Historical Legacy: From Marginalization to Canonization

As Confucianism’s "Second Sage" (Yasheng), Mencius’s stature evolved dramatically:

 

Historical Assessments of Mencius

1. Sima Qian (Han Dynasty)

Records of the Grand Historian: Biographies of Mencius and Xun Qing:

 

"Mencius served King Xuan of Qi, but the king did not employ him. He went to Liang, yet King Hui of Liang deemed his words ‘impractical and divorced from reality’ (迂远而阔于事情). At that time, Qin used Lord Shang to enrich the state and strengthen its military; Chu and Wei used Wu Qi to conquer rivals; Kings Wei and Xuan of Qi employed strategists like Sun Bin and Tian Ji, compelling eastern states to pay homage. All under Heaven pursued alliances and warfare as virtues. But Mencius spoke only of the virtues of Yao, Shun, and the Three Dynasties—thus he found no ruler to match his ideals."

 

2. Ban Gu (Han Dynasty)

Book of Han: Commentary on Prince Chu Yuan:

 

"Since Confucius’s death, countless scholars have written. Yet only Mencius... possessed encyclopedic knowledge and understood past and present (博物洽闻，通达古今). His words benefit the world."

 

3. Han Yu (Tang Dynasty)

Advice to the Scholar:

 

"Mencius’s debates illuminated the Way of Confucius (孟轲好辩，孔道以明)."

 

4. Lin Yutang (Modern Scholar)

On Talent, Ambition, and Aspiration:

 

"Modern youth should read Mencius—often, even yearly. Chapters like Wan Zhang, Gaozi, and Jin Xin are essential. Mencius radiates heroic spirit (英俊之气), vital for nurturing ambition. He teaches willpower (养志) and moral energy (养气): ‘Where will is focused, energy follows; where energy converges, will is stirred’—a tonic for the young."

 

5. Guo Moruo (Modern Historian)

The Intellectual Epic of China:

 

"One wonders why Mencius omitted critical historical truths—was it oversight or intent?"

 

6. Feng Youlan (Philosopher)

"Confucius is China’s Socrates; Mencius is China’s Plato."

 

7. Wang Meng (Contemporary Writer)

"Mencius spoke boldly—often more sharply than Confucius—to society’s elites. He demanded rulers prioritize the people’s welfare: land allotments, livestock, housing, and livelihoods (民生). His vision: people over 50 wear silk; those over 70 eat meat regularly. In an era when ‘reaching seventy was rare,’ this was revolutionary. He linked rulers’ virtue, public welfare, and political success, insisting: ‘Governance must never put private gain first.’"

 

8. Zhang Hanchao (Vietnamese Confucian Scholar, 14th c.)

"As scholars, we present only the ways of Yao and Shun; we write only the teachings of Confucius and Mencius (非尧舜之道不陈前，非孔孟之道不著述)."

 

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Story 1: Mother Meng’s Three Moves (孟母三迁)

Once, when Mencius was young, his father died early. His mother remained a widow, raising him with strict discipline and high hopes for his future as a virtuous scholar.

 

At first, they lived near a cemetery. Young Mencius began imitating mourners—kneeling, wailing, and playing funeral games with neighbor children. Seeing this, his mother frowned: "This is no place for my child!"

 

They moved next to a marketplace. There, Mencius mimicked merchants hawking goods. His mother declared: "This too is unfit!"

 

She then settled near a slaughterhouse. Mencius soon imitated butchers and animal traders. His mother frowned again: "Still not right for my son!"

 

Finally, they moved beside a school. During monthly ceremonies, officials bowed respectfully in the temple, practicing ritual etiquette. Mencius observed and learned these dignified manners. His mother nodded in approval: "This is where my son belongs!" And there they stayed.

 

Cultural Impact:
This story symbolizes how environment shapes character. The idiom "孟母三迁" (Mother Meng’s Three Moves) underscores the Chinese emphasis on educational settings and parental dedication.

 

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Story 2: The Fifty-Steps Soldier Mocks the Hundred-Steps Soldier (五十步笑百步)

During the Warring States period, endless wars plagued the people. Mencius traveled to persuade warlike rulers to cease fighting.

 

He visited King Hui of Liang, who boasted:
"I govern diligently and care for my people—yet their numbers don’t increase. Why?"

 

Mencius replied with a metaphor:
"Imagine two armies clash in battle. When one side retreats, soldiers drop armor and flee. Suppose a soldier who ran fifty paces mocks another who ran a hundred paces: ‘You coward!’"

 

Mencius then asked: "Is this justified?"
The king exclaimed: "Of course not! Both fled!"

 

Mencius concluded:
"You claim to love your people, yet wage constant wars—bringing them ruin. Your ‘care’ is like that soldier’s mockery: a hypocrisy of degrees."

 

Philosophical Meaning:
This parable (五十步笑百步) exposes false moral superiority. Mencius argues that partial virtue (e.g., limited reforms) is still failure if fundamental injustice (like warmongering) persists.

 

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