Sun Wu (c. 545 BC – c. 470 BC, alternatively 480 BC), courtesy name Changqing, was a native of Le'an in the state of Qi (located in present-day Shandong, China; specific regional affiliation remains debated; see "Controversies" section). He was a renowned military strategist during China's Spring and Autumn period.
A descendant of nobility from the state of Chen, Sun Wu fled to the state of Wu in 532 BC during the internal turmoil in Qi. He lived in seclusion for many years in Wu, dedicating himself to the study of military science. After King Helü of Wu ascended the throne, Sun Wu—recommended repeatedly by Wu Zixu—presented his Thirteen Chapters on the Art of War to the king and was appointed as a general. In 506 BC, Sun Wu and Wu Zixu devised a strategy to exploit conflicts between the states of Tang and Cai with the powerful state of Chu, successfully securing their alliance with Wu. Subsequently, they assisted King Helü in leading a major campaign against Chu, achieving a decisive victory at the Battle of Boju and capturing the Chu capital, Ying.
In his fifties, Sun Wu retired from military planning for Wu's campaigns and withdrew to rural seclusion, devoting himself to revising his military treatises until his peaceful death.
Honored as Sunzi ("Master Sun"), he is also revered as the "Sage of War" and the "Supreme Sage of Military Strategy," earning titles such as "Teacher of All Generations of Military Strategists" and "Founder of Eastern Military Science." His masterpiece, The Art of War, remains China's earliest extant military treatise. The work systematically explores principles of warfare, strategic doctrines, battlefield tactics, and logistical support. Rich in content yet concise in language, it emphasizes the importance of subjective initiative and the art of adapting to objective conditions, revealing profound dialectical thinking. Its core principles have been widely applied beyond the military sphere—in social, economic, and various other domains. Translated into numerous languages including English, French, German, and Japanese, the text continues to exert profound global influence.
| full name | Sun Tzu |
| alias | Sun Tzu, Sun Wuzi, and the Holy Warrior (the Holy Warrior) |
| word | Changqing |
| The era in which it is located | Spring and Autumn Period, State of Qi |
| Ethnic groups | Huaxia ethnic group |
| birthplace | Le'an, State of Qi (now part of Shandong, specific ownership can be found in the "Controversy over Characters" section) |
| Date of Birth: | About 545 BC |
| date of death | Around 470 BC |
| Main achievements | The Art of War by Sun Tzu; The Battle of Baiju resulted in a great defeat to the State of Chu |
| Main works | The Art of War |
| school | Strategist |
| bestow posthumous honors | Hu Du Hou (Northern Song Dynasty) |
Sun Wu's ancestry can be traced definitively to Yu Efu, a descendant of the legendary Emperor Shun. When King Wu of Zhou launched his campaign against King Zhou of Shang, Yu Efu served as the Director of Pottery for the Zhou state, overseeing ceramic production and managing the artisans. His exceptional administrative skills ensured abundant ritual vessels, prompting King Wu to marry his eldest daughter, Daji, to Man—Yu Efu's son. Man was enfeoffed in the area of present-day Huaiyang County, Henan Province, where he established the state of Chen. The Zhou king also bestowed upon him the ancestral surname Guī (妫). Known as Duke Hu, Man became Chen's first ruler.
From Duke Hu Man, the title passed through ten generations spanning twelve rulers. By the time of Duke Huan, internal conflict erupted in Chen. Wan, son of Duke Li of Chen, was unable to claim the throne due to the turmoil and fled to the state of Qi. He was Sun Wu's direct ancestor.
Wan (posthumously known as Duke Jing of Chen) actively engaged in Qi's political affairs. By the fourth generation, his descendant Tian Wuyu (Tian Huanzi) had risen to the position of High Minister. Tian Wuyu fathered five sons: Tian Kai (Tian Wuzi), Tian Qi (Tian Xizi), Tian Zhao (Chen Zhaozǐ), Tian Shu, and Zi Dan.
Among them, Tian Shu (later known as Sun Shu) distinguished himself in 521 BC during a military campaign against the state of Ju. For his merits, Duke Jing of Qi granted him the fiefdom of Le'an and bestowed upon him the lineage name Sūn (孙). Thus, Tian Shu became Sun Shu—Sun Wu's grandfather. Sun Shu fathered Sun Ping, who in turn fathered Sun Wu.
In 512 BC (the third year of King Helü of Wu), Sun Wu strategized with Wu Zixu for a western campaign. At this critical juncture, Wu Zixu "persistently recommended Sunzi seven times" to the king, ultimately securing an audience for Sun Wu. Having authored The Art of War during his seclusion, Sun Wu presented his treatise to the king, who privately marveled at its brilliance. Appointed as a general of Wu, Sun Wu frequently advised the monarch on military and political matters, consistently providing insightful solutions.
In 508 BC (the seventh year of King Helü), Wu implemented Sun Wu’s "subjugating the enemy through alliances" strategy by inciting the state of Tong to rebel against Chu. Wu further orchestrated a deception through the Shujiu tribe, spreading rumors: "If Chu sends troops against Wu, Wu—fearing Chu’s might—will attack Tong on Chu’s behalf." In October, Wu forces ambushed Chu troops in Yuzhang, exploiting their unpreparedness. Subsequently, Wu captured the strategic stronghold of Chao, taking its defender Prince Fan of Chu prisoner.
The pivotal campaign came in 506 BC (the ninth year of King Helü). Employing Sun Wu’s "sustaining the army with enemy provisions" tactic, Wu troops consumed captured Chu supplies while relentlessly pursuing their foe. Under the direct command of Sun Wu and Wu Zixu, Wu achieved a decisive victory after five major battles, storming the Chu capital Ying within a mere fortnight.
The following year (505 BC), the tide turned when Qin intervened to rescue Chu, defeating Wu forces. Simultaneously, Fugai—Helü’s brother—usurped the throne in Wu. The Wu army withdrew to quell the rebellion.
After Helü’s death, his heir Fuchai ascended the throne, vowing vengeance. Sun Wu and Wu Zixu remained key advisors, spearheading a three-year recovery effort to replenish granaries, armories, and troops. By 494 BC, Wu had regained strength.
That year, Goujian of Yue attacked Wu. Under Sun Wu and Wu Zixu’s command, Wu executed a nighttime deception: deploying simulated forces with torches in two flanks to launch a surprise assault. The Yue army crumbled swiftly. After successive defeats, Goujian was forced to sue for a humiliating truce.
In his fifties, following the execution of his closest friend Wu Zixu, Sun Wu ceased advising Wu’s military campaigns and retreated to rural seclusion. There, he dedicated his final years to revising his seminal work, The Art of War.
Likely consumed by grief over his nation’s turmoil and unfulfilled ambitions, Sun Wu passed away shortly after Wu Zixu’s death. His demise occurred around 480 BC (the inaugural year of Duke Zhuang of Wei’s reign). From his retreat until his peaceful death, Sun Wu never left the state of Wu. He was laid to rest in the outskirts of the Wu capital.
Following the internal turmoil in Qi in 532 BC (13th year of King Jing of Zhou), Sun Wu resolutely journeyed to the southern state of Wu. There, he immersed himself in military strategy, ultimately composing the Thirteen Chapters on the Art of War.
In 512 BC (23rd year of Duke Ling of Wei), through repeated recommendations by Wu’s strategist Wu Zixu, Sun Wu presented his treatise to King Helü of Wu. During the audience, his groundbreaking theories and profound insights resonated deeply with the ambition-driven monarch. The king, marveling at Sun Wu’s vision, tested his military prowess by having him demonstrate battle formations with 180 palace maids. Convinced, Helü appointed Sun Wu as a general-advisor (keqing—a high-ranking foreign consultant).
The pinnacle of his career came in 506 BC (14th year of King Jing of Zhou) during the Wu-Chu War. At the Battle of Boju, Sun Wu commanded 30,000 Wu troops in a daring long-distance assault into the heart of the powerful Chu state. Achieving five consecutive victories across hundreds of miles, his forces stormed the Chu capital Ying—a military miracle of defeating a larger force that remains legendary in Chinese history. This campaign cemented both Sun Wu’s strategic genius and Wu’s ascendancy.
Sun Wu emphasized that victory in war depends not on deities or spirits, but on interconnected factors including sound governance, economic development, diplomatic efforts, military strength, and geographical conditions. He asserted that predicting war outcomes required rigorous analysis of these elements.
Beyond recognizing the objective existence of the world, Sun Wu theorized its constant state of flux. In warfare, he advocated actively creating conditions to harness human agency, thereby driving the transformation of opposing forces toward favorable outcomes.
It was Sun Wu’s ability to distill universal philosophical principles from military science that elevated him to stand alongside Confucius and Laozi as one of the "Three Luminaries" illuminating the intellectual firmament of the late Spring and Autumn period (circa 500 BCE).
Though his military theories were not without flaws, they transcended contemporary strategic works in depth and vision. His exceptional insights profoundly influenced later generations, earning enduring reverence from military strategists across history and cultures.
From "Wei Liaozi":
"Who commanded 100,000 troops that none under heaven could withstand? Duke Huan. Who commanded 70,000 that none could withstand? Wu Qi. Who commanded 30,000 that none could withstand? Sun Wu."
From "Records of the Grand Historian":
"King Helü, recognizing Sunzi's military genius, appointed him general. Sunzi contributed decisively to Wu's triumphs: crushing mighty Chu to seize Ying, intimidating Qi and Jin in the north, and establishing Wu's hegemony among the states. While military treatises abound, Sunzi's Thirteen Chapters remains unparalleled – hence we focus not on his writings but his implemented strategies."
Sima Qian's Autobiographical Postscript:
"Only those with integrity, humility, and courage can master the art of war – a discipline harmonizing with the Dao, cultivating inner virtue while adapting to external challenges. Thus do gentlemen measure their character."
"Book of Han: Treatise on Penal Law":
"Sun Wu and Helü stand as history's supreme commanders. Those versed in their tactics never lose; those ignorant of formations and combat techniques court disaster when forced to lead armies."
"Ten Commentaries on Sunzi" (Cao Cao):
"Though sages bear arms, they act only when compelled. Of all military texts, Sunzi's depth remains unmatched."
"Emperor Taizong of Tang and Li Jing's Dialogues on War":
"Among military treatises, none surpass Sunzi; within his Thirteen Chapters, none surpass the principle of flexible deployment (虚实). Master this, and victory is assured."
"Supreme generals subdue enemies without battle; middling ones win through repeated engagements; inferior ones hide behind fortifications. Sunzi's work encompasses all three tiers."
Su Xun's "Discussion on Sunzi":
"No ancient military theorist equals Sunzi. His systems of cost-benefit analysis, interplay of orthodox/unorthodox tactics, and hundreds of battle strategies remain unsurpassed – flawless beyond improvement."
"Veritable Records of the Ming" (Zhu Yuanzhang):
"Sunzi's work blends ancient strategic doctrines yet lacks purity. His condemnation of 'extreme cruelty' and rulers who 'victimize their own' rings profoundly true. His techniques likely surpassed even his written legacy."
Qi Jiguang:
"Studying Sunzi, I marveled: His art is an arsenal – commanders draw their weapons from it! A master apothecary – practitioners compound victory from its wisdom!... Governing Zhejiang, I confirmed his framework's peerless precision. Yet like Zen's supreme doctrine, it omits granular details – demanding our practical implementation."
Han Feizi:
"Within our borders, all discourse revolves around war; every household possesses the writings of Sun Wu and Wu Qi. Yet our military weakens—for while many speak of war, few don armor."
Bai Gui:
"In managing enterprise, I employ the strategies of Yi Yin and Lü Shang, the tactics of Sun Wu and Wu Qi, and the discipline of Shang Yang. Those lacking wisdom for adaptation, courage for decision, benevolence for fair exchange, or strength for defense—though they seek my methods, I shall never impart them."
Sima Qian:
"Military treatises flood the world—Sunzi’s Thirteen Chapters and Wu Qi’s Art of War dominate discourse. Thus I focus not on their texts but their applied strategies."
"Without arms, no strength; without virtue, no prosperity. Huangdi, Tang, and Wu rose thus; Jie, Zhou, and the Second Qin Emperor fell. Heed this gravity! The Methods of Sima endures—Taigong, Sun Wu, Wu Qi, and Prince Wei refined it to suit changing times."
Ban Gu:
"After the Spring and Autumn era, annexations birthed the Warring States... Masters of strategy exploited chaos: Sun Wu in Wu, Sun Bin in Qi, Wu Qi in Wei, Shang Yang in Qin—all vanquished foes and authored texts. Amidst shifting alliances and wars, Qi boasted skirmishers, Wei elite infantry, Qin shock troops. As pragmatism reigned, strategists worshipped Sun and Wu; only Xunzi upheld true kingship, condemning their ways."
Wang Chong:
"Sun Wu and Helü were history’s supreme commanders. Those versed in their tactics never lose; those ignorant of formations and combat invite ruin when leading armies."
Cao Cao:
"Sages bear arms only when compelled. Among military texts, Sunzi’s depth remains unmatched. Sun Wu of Qi authored Thirteen Chapters for King Helü. Testing tactics on palace maids, he proved his genius—shattering Chu, intimidating Qi and Jin. Sun Bin emerged a century later. Sunzi’s meticulous plans and profound insights stand unquestioned. Yet contemporaries obscure his essence with convoluted commentaries—hence I compose this Concise Exegesis."
Zhuge Liang:
"Sun Wu conquered the world through clarity in command."
Liu Xie:
"Sunzi’s Art of War gleams with jeweled prose—how could a strategist lack literary grace?"
Li Jing:
"Benevolence precedes authority—never reverse them! Authority before mercy is futile. The Book of Documents teaches prudent endings, not impulsive beginnings. Thus Sunzi’s laws endure eternal."
Sima Zhen:
"Sunzi’s Thirteen Chapters:
The maiden slain, the commander gained."
Du You:
"The axiom holds: 'Heaven's timing falls short of terrain advantage; terrain advantage falls short of human unity.' This captures the essence of military art. Sunzi’s Thirteen Chapters distills this truth, proving that historic victories stemmed from mastering these principles. Here, I compile strategies aligning with Sunzi’s doctrine—open this volume, and success or failure reveals itself."
Du Mu:
"Of countless military treatises spanning millennia, Sunzi’s Thirteen Chapters alone withstands time’s test. For a thousand years since his death, every commander’s triumph or defeat mirrors his teachings—as precisely as a seal pressed in wax."
Ouyang Xiu:
"Sunzi’s work roots in warfare—an art of infinite variations. Hence its interpretations multiply, each finding fresh marvels in its inexhaustible wisdom."
Su Xun:
"Though military schools revere Sunzi’s Thirteen Chapters, I deem it the supreme discourse on war. Its analysis of tactical mysteries and divine maneuvering remains unmatched in military literature... Wu Qi, though paired with Sunzi as 'Sun-Wu,' produced crude, disjointed theories. Sunzi’s brevity contains infinite depth—all strategies converge within his pages."
Su Shi:
"No ancient theorist equals Sunzi. His systems of cost-benefit calculus, interplay of orthodox/unorthodox tactics, and hundreds of siege strategies remain flawless beyond augmentation."
He Qufei:
"For theory—none surpass Sunzi; for execution—none surpass Han Xin or Cao Cao. Sunzi wrote but rarely commanded; Han Xin commanded but left no texts; Cao Cao wrote but his works perished. Yet both masters embodied Sunzi’s principles. Had all students grasped his Thirteen Chapters, Han Xins and Cao Caos would abound! But theory alone cannot forge such genius—their battlefield improvisations transcended even Sunzi’s words: Only Han Xin could turn civilians into warriors to slay Chen Yu; only Cao Cao could trap retreating troops to crush Zhang Xiu. Herein lies Sunzi’s latent brilliance—actualized only through titans."
Chen Zhizhong:
"When the Six Classics fragmented, the Hundred Schools arose—each excelling in one art. But in warfare, none eclipsed Sunzi."
From "Biographies of 100 Generals Across Seventeen Histories":
"King Helü recognized Sunzi’s military genius and appointed him general. Sunzi crucially enabled Wu’s triumphs: crushing Chu to seize Ying, intimidating Qi and Jin in the north, and securing Wu’s hegemony."
Dai Xi (Song Dynasty)：
"Sunzi’s Thirteen Chapters exhausts all strategic dimensions: orthodox/unorthodox tactics, flexible deployments, strength/weakness analyses, numerical superiority/inferiority, supply conditions, fatigue levels, enemy/ally assessments, defensive/offensive postures—along with every formation for mountain, marsh, land, or river combat. Its subtlety defies full comprehension yet remains universally applicable: those who follow it prevail; those who defy it perish. Even the cleverest commander must obey its principles—perfection incarnate. Yet Sunzi overvalues artifice over benevolence, prioritizes victory above lasting public welfare. Thus he served Warring States lords but could never advise sage-kings of antiquity."
Zheng Youxian (Song Dynasty)：
"True mastery lies in doctrines that deepen upon study and theories that unfold endlessly. Only such works teach future generations. For Confucians, this is the I Ching; for strategists, it is Sunzi. The I Ching’s triad of cosmic forces mirrors Sunzi’s four tactical dimensions. As yin-yang’s mystery shows benevolence to some and wisdom to others, Sunzi’s interplay of tactics reveals cunning to one commander, ingenuity to another—while ordinary soldiers enact it unknowingly. Later commentaries, like astronomers charting stars without grasping celestial laws, dissect Sunzi’s methods without capturing their transformative genius."
Zhu Yuanzhang (Ming Dynasty)：
"Sunzi’s work blends ancient stratagems but lacks purity. His condemnation of ‘extreme cruelty’ rings true, yet his emphasis on deception is shallow. A ruler like Tang or Wu needed no ruses to triumph. Trickery wins battles but loses kingdoms—for benevolence alone ensures true victory. Sunzi’s tactics ultimately contradict his own warnings. His brilliance exceeded his written legacy."
Huang Daozhou (Ming Dynasty)：
"Sunzi’s Art of War: thirteen chapters.
Maids became his test subjects;
Discipline his foremost creed.
‘Eyes forward, hands aligned—
Laughter means the blade!’
Heads fell, ranks reformed,
Awe spread through the host.
Thus he crushed Qi and Chu in might—
Immortal in the annals."
Zheng Duan (Qing Dynasty)：
"Among history’s supreme strategists, Sunzi reigns supreme. He channeled Huangdi and Jiang Ziya; Zhuge Liang and Li Jing later channeled him. All military theory flows from his wellspring—though his esoteric principles remain untransmitted."
Wei Yuan (Qing Dynasty)：
"The I Ching reveals war’s essence: ‘Knowing advance but not retreat invites ruin.’
Laozi reveals war’s form: ‘Nothing exceeds water’s softness in eroding stone.’
Sunzi distills its quintessence: ‘Supreme excellence breaks resistance without fighting.’ Thus the greatest general wins ‘without reputation or feats.’
These three classics—I Ching’s cosmic patterns, Laozi’s natural forces, Sunzi’s strategic synthesis—together unveil heaven-human unity within perpetual change."
The earliest account supporting Sun Wu's peaceful demise comes from Dialogues between Emperor Taizong of Tang and Li Jing:
"Like Zhang Liang, Fan Li, and Sun Wu—they withdrew loftily, their whereabouts unknown."
Later, Qupin Jiaolu·Nengpin notes:
"With his Thirteen Chapters, Sunzi elevated Wu to near-hegemony. Having achieved merit, he withdrew—likely to avoid sharing Wu Zixu's fate as a raging river spirit."
Crucially, the Eastern Han text Yuejue Shu·Records of Wu·Geography definitively records:
"Beyond the Witch Gate in present-day Xiangcheng District, Suzhou, lies the great tomb of Sun Wu of Qi—guest-commander of Wu—ten li from the county seat."
This confirms Sun Wu retreated into seclusion and died naturally in Wu territory.
However, alternative historical accounts claim he was executed. The Book of Han·Treatise on Penal Law states:
"Sun [Wu], Wu [Qi], Shang [Yang], and Bai [Qi] all suffered execution in their lifetimes, their achievements extinguished thereafter."
Yan Shigu's commentary specifies these "executed" figures as:
"Sun Wu, Sun Bin, Wu Qi, Shang Yang, and Bai Qi."
Tang strategist Li Quan's Taihai Yinjing·On Masterful Command echoes this:
"Sun, Wu, Han [Fei], and Bai [Qi] all died by execution, their lineages cut short."
This grouping of Sun Wu alongside executed statesmen (Wu Qi, Shang Yang) suggests his final years were troubled. Following Wu Zixu's execution, Sun Wu may have been implicated—either for similar remonstrations that enraged King Fuchai, or through guilt by association as Wu Zixu's confidant.
Yet significant doubts remain:
1️⃣ Source Discrepancy: The execution narrative first appears in Book of Han (1st century CE), over 500 years after Sun Wu's death.
2️⃣ Silence in Earlier Records: Sima Qian's Records of the Grand Historian (c. 100 BCE)—our primary Warring States source—omits any mention of Sun Wu's execution.
3️⃣ Lack of Context: Ban Gu provides no details or evidence for the execution claim.
4️⃣ Geographical Evidence: The Eastern Han tomb record (c. 1st century CE) predates Ban Gu's account and physically anchors Sun Wu's presence in Wu.
Conclusion: While political persecution remains plausible given Wu Zixu's fate (484 BCE) and Fuchai's tyranny, the preponderance of evidence—particularly the contemporary tomb record—favors the "secluded demise" narrative. The execution theory likely reflects Han Dynasty moralizing about strategists' tragic ends rather than historical fact.
A warrior's greatest victory is to withdraw whole.
— Sun Wu's life's end mirrors his supreme strategic ideal.
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