Zisi

Introduction to Zisi (Kong Ji)

Kong Ji (483 BC – 402 BC), courtesy name Zisi, was a native of the State of Lu. As the direct grandson of Confucius and son of Kong Li (Confucius’s son), he was born around 483 BC (37th year of King Jing of Zhou) and died in 402 BC (24th year of King Weilie of Zhou), living to the age of 82.

 

Philosophical Lineage

A renowned thinker of the late Spring and Autumn period, Zisi studied under Zengzi (Zeng Shen), Confucius’s eminent disciple. Through this lineage:

 

Confucius → Zengzi → Zisi → Mencius
he became a pivotal bridge in transmitting Confucian orthodoxy. Later scholars grouped Zisi and Mencius as the "School of Zisi and Mencius" (Simeng Xuepai). While the Records of the Grand Historian notes Mencius studied under Zisi’s disciples, other texts like the Preface to Mencius identify Zisi as Mencius’s direct teacher.

 

Intellectual Contributions

Zisi played a critical role in Confucian intellectual history by:

 

• Advancing the Doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong):
  Developing Confucius’s concept of moral equilibrium into a cosmological principle.

   

• Pioneering Mind-Nature Theory (Xinxing):
  Laying groundwork for Mencius’s theory of innate human goodness (xingshan).

   

• Influencing Neo-Confucianism:
  His metaphysical frameworks shaped Song Dynasty Confucian revivalists like Zhu Xi.

   

Posthumous Honors

Recognizing his legacy, later dynasties granted him exalted titles:

 

• Northern Song: "Marquis of Yishui" (Yishui Hou) by Emperor Huizong (1113 AD).

   

• Yuan Dynasty: "Duke of Narrating the Sage" (Shushenggong) by Emperor Wenzong (1330 AD).

   

• Ming/Qing Era: Venerated as "Narrating Sage" (Shusheng), ranking third among Confucianism’s "Four Correlates" (Sipei) after Yan Hui and Zengzi.

   

Enduring Legacy

Zisi’s synthesis of ethics and cosmology transformed Confucianism into a comprehensive philosophical system, ensuring his eternal place in Confucian temples and East Asian intellectual tradition.

 

Zisi's Wikipedia

alias	Zi Si, Zi Si Zi
The era in which it is located	Zhou Dynasty (Spring and Autumn Period)
birthplace	State of Lu
Date of Birth:	483 BC
Date of death	402 BC
Main achievements	One of the five great sages of Confucianism, who is regarded as the founder of the School of Thought and Mencius along with Mencius, is revered as the "Shusheng"
Main works	Confucius and the Doctrine of the Mean
My real name	Zisi
Foreign Name	KongJi
nationality	China
nationality	Huaxia ethnic group
Native place	Qufu City, Shandong Province
career	Educator and thinker
confer a posthumous title	Yishui Marquis, Shushenggong, Duke of Yiguo

 

Textual Research on Zisi

In Xunzi·Fei Shi'er Zi (Critique of Twelve Philosophers), Xunzi discusses the teachings of Zisi and Mencius, stating: "They roughly modeled themselves on the ancient kings but failed to grasp their guiding principles. Nonetheless, they were ambitious and talented, with vast but eclectic knowledge. They fabricated doctrines based on old traditions, calling them the 'Five Phases' (五行). These doctrines were highly eccentric and incoherent, obscure and inexplicable, cryptic and insoluble. Yet they adorned their words and reverently declared, 'These are the true words of the noble man!' Zisi initiated this, and Mencius echoed it."

 

Among the "Eight Schools of Confucianism" recorded by Han Feizi, Zizhang’s school was listed first. Tao Yuanming placed Zisi (regarded as representing the impoverished disciples) at the forefront, while the Yan school referred to those disciples who remained in Qufu honoring Yan Hui after Confucius’s death—they were also the compilers of the Analects. This shows that the teachings of the breakaway disciples like Zizhang and Yuan Xian surpassed the fame of their master Confucius. Thus, the old Confucian school could only be considered third in influence.

 

From Han Feizi’s writings and the fragmented text of Zhuangzi·Tianxia (Under Heaven), we can ascertain that by the late Warring States period, though Zizhang’s and Zisi’s schools remained influential, they had become minority factions. Tianxia praises the other six Confucian schools, commending them according to the sequence of the Six Classics (Poetry, Documents, Rites, Music, Spring and Autumn Annals, and Changes), but singles out Zizhang and Zisi for ridicule. This reveals two points:

 

First, the five breakaway Confucian schools had largely reunited by the late Warring States period and acknowledged the orthodox status of Zengzi’s school in Lu. Rewarding merit and accepting hierarchy, they no longer stubbornly resisted.

 

Second, only the schools of Zizhang and Zisi resisted to the end, becoming renegades despised even by Daoists. This aligns with the publication records in the Analects and the Bibliographical Treatise of the Book of Han, and further indicates that after the Han dynasty elevated Zengzi’s school to orthodoxy, it did not suppress the works of opposing schools like Zhongliangzi or Yue Zhengzi. Thus, the Han authorities failed to honor their initial promise to tolerate dissent. This contextualizes Sima Qian’s high praise for Ji Bu’s integrity—"one promise worth a thousand pieces of gold"—which subtly satirizes the Confucians of his time for breaking their word.

 

Kang Youwei's textual analysis is quite reasonable. First, considering Confucius' lifespan: he was born in the 22nd year of Duke Xiang of Lu (551 BCE) and died in the 16th year of Duke Ai of Lu (479 BCE). Zisi was born in 483 BCE, meaning Confucius was 68 years old at Zisi's birth—precisely when Confucius had just been invited back to Lu by Ji Kangzi, who sent envoys with generous gifts hoping to appoint him to office. Though respected, Confucius found Ji Kangzi's actions fundamentally opposed to his political ideals and thus declined official position. Instead, he devoted his remaining years entirely to cultural endeavors: editing the Book of Songs and Book of Documents, finalizing the Rites and Music, compiling the Spring and Autumn Annals, and composing the Commentaries on the Yi Jing. He diligently collected and systematized ancient texts to serve as instructional materials for his disciples. Thus, chronologically, it is entirely possible that Zisi received his early education directly from Confucius.

 

Second, Confucius himself placed great emphasis on nurturing and educating descendants. He instructed his own son, Bo Yu, to diligently study poetry and rites, admonishing him: "If you do not study the Songs, you will have nothing to express yourself; if you do not study the rites, you will have nothing to stand upon." Confucius held similar hopes for his grandson, Zisi. The Records of Sixteen Disciples of the Sage documents an episode from Confucius' later years: While resting at leisure, Confucius once sighed deeply. Zisi asked if his grandfather feared future generations might bring disgrace to the family through ignorance. Surprised, Confucius inquired how Zisi knew this. The boy replied: "When a father chops firewood and his son fails to carry it, this is unfilial. I wish to inherit your legacy, so I strive relentlessly in my studies now, never daring to slacken." Upon hearing this, Confucius said with relief: "Now I have nothing to worry about."

 

The Kong Congzi (孔丛子) contains records with similar implications. It is highly probable that Zisi first received an initial education in Confucian thought under his grandfather, Confucius, specifically absorbing the doctrines of Confucius’s later years. After Confucius’s death, Zisi further studied under Zengzi, benefiting greatly. Thus, the Records of Sixteen Disciples of the Sage states: "Zisi studied under Zengzi, sincerely comprehended the Way and virtue, and received the transmission of essential truths. He thus elucidated his teacher’s ideas, explored the origins of human nature and destiny, probed the profound mysteries of Heaven and humanity, and composed the Doctrine of the Mean to illuminate posterity." Under Zengzi’s guidance, Zisi continued to study the authentic transmission of Confucius’s thought, expounded the Confucian doctrine of the Mean, and authored the Doctrine of the Mean, later included in the Book of Rites. Additionally, the Book of Rites chapters "Biao Ji" (表记, The Record on Example), "Fang Ji" (坊记, The Record of the Dykes), and "Zi Yi" (缁衣, Black Robes) are also attributed to Zisi. According to the Bibliographical Treatise of the Book of Han, Zisi’s works originally comprised twenty-three chapters, though most have since been lost.

 

However, the Records of Sixteen Disciples of the Sage dates from the Qing dynasty, and no similar accounts existed in earlier documents. While the Kong Congzi may serve as a reference, its date of compilation has long been disputed, with the earliest possible origin only traceable to the late Qin or early Han period. Thus, the accounts in both texts cannot be readily accepted as historical fact.

 

Regarding the authorship and dating of the Doctrine of the Mean, two opposing views have long persisted:

 

1. Traditionalists attribute it to Zisi during the mid-Warring States period.

    

2. Skeptics argue it was composed after the Qin unification of the Six States, rejecting Zisi’s authorship.

    

The traditional view holds that the Doctrine of the Mean was written by Zisi. Sima Qian explicitly states in Records of the Grand Historian: Hereditary House of Confucius: "Zisi composed the Doctrine of the Mean." Han and Tang commentators largely followed this attribution. For example:

 

• Zheng Xuan noted: "It is titled Doctrine of the Mean because it records the application of centrality and harmony. Yong (庸) means 'application.' Confucius’s grandson Zisi wrote it to illuminate the virtue of his sage ancestor."

   

• Lu Deming and Kong Yingda of the Tang dynasty concurred.

   

Song dynasty scholars like the Cheng brothers and Zhu Xi also upheld this view. Zhu Xi clearly asserts in his Commentary on the Doctrine of the Mean:

 

"Why was the Doctrine of the Mean written? Zisi composed it out of concern that the Dao-learning might be lost."
He further explains:
"This work transmits the essential teachings of the Confucian school. Fearing their distortion over time, Zisi committed it to writing and passed it down to Mencius."

 

Modern scholars like Hu Shi acknowledge Zisi’s authorship, though they suggest later interpolations. Hu Shi argues that the text largely predates Mencius, representing a transitional phase in Confucian philosophy: from extreme ritualism, authoritarianism, and pragmatic life philosophy to the exaltation of individual dignity, advocacy of popular sovereignty, and psychologically oriented life philosophy. The Great Learning and Doctrine of the Mean, he contends, reflect this evolution.

 

The argument against Zisi's authorship of the Doctrine of the Mean emerged relatively late. Proponents of this view cite Chapter 28:

 

"Now the empire has carriages of the same gauge, writing of the same script, and conduct of the same norms"
as reflecting the political unification under Qin Shi Huang, which would be anachronistic for the Warring States period. They also point to Chapter 28's statement:
"Though occupying the throne, if one lacks the virtue, one dare not institute rituals and music"
as likely composed after the Qin dynasty's collapse.

 

However, Zisi's authorship remains well-supported. Consider these evidences:

 

1. Bibliographical Records

Ban Gu's Bibliographical Treatise of the Book of Han lists:

 

• Zhongyong Shuo (《中庸说》, Expositions on the Mean) in 2 chapters under "Rituals" category

   

• Zisi (《子思》) in 23 chapters under "Confucian School," annotated: "Named Ji, grandson of Confucius, teacher to Duke Mu of Lu"

   

Yan Shigu's commentary clarifies:

 

"The current Book of Rites contains the Doctrine of the Mean chapter—originally not part of core ritual classics, but related to these expositions."

 

This indicates the Doctrine of the Mean circulated independently before Han times, inspiring specialized exegetical works—akin to the Expositions on the Book of Songs traditions.

 

2. Linguistic Resolution

The controversial phrase "车同轨，书同文，行同伦" (uniform gauge/writing/conduct) need not imply Qin unification. As Li Xueqin demonstrates:

 

• The character jin (今, "now") often functioned as ruo (若, "if") in classical texts.

   

• Confucius witnessed the Eastern Zhou's fragmentation, where no such uniformity existed.

   

• Jingzhuan Shici (Explanations of Function Words in Classics, by Wang Yinzhi) documents this grammatical usage.

   

Thus the passage expresses an aspirational conditional rather than historical reality.

 

3. Archaeological Confirmation

The Mawangdui silk manuscripts (c. 168 BCE) provide decisive evidence:

 

• The excavated text Wuxing (《五行》, Five Conducts) corresponds exactly to the "Five Phases doctrine" criticized by Xunzi as initiated by Zisi and Mencius.

   

• Traces of this doctrine permeate the Doctrine of the Mean and Mencius, demonstrating intellectual continuity.

   

This material evidence confirms:
① Xunzi's criticism referenced a real Zisi-Mencius tradition
② The Doctrine of the Mean contains core elements of this tradition
③ The text genuinely reflects Zisi's thought

 

According to the Bibliographical Treatise of the Book of Han, Zisi’s works comprised twenty-three chapters, compiled into the book Zisizi. While scholars have debated the reliability of this record, the winter 1993 discovery of bamboo slips in a Chu tomb at Guodian, Jingmen, Hubei, not only confirms its accuracy but also verifies the Doctrine of the Mean as Zisi’s genuine work. Published in May 1998 as Guodian Chu Tomb Bamboo Slips, these texts include Confucian writings divided into two groups. One group—containing Black Robes (Ziyi), Five Conducts (Wuxing), Honoring Virtue and Righteousness (Zunde Yi), Nature Derives from Mandate (Xing Zi Ming Chu), and Six Virtues (Liude)—has been identified by historian Li Xueqin as belonging to Zisi’s school. These six texts correspond to the Zisizi recorded in the Book of Han.

 

Crucially, these bamboo slip texts share profound connections with the Doctrine of the Mean:

 

• Nature Derives from Mandate states: "Human nature derives from the Mandate; the Mandate descends from Heaven"—mirroring the Mean’s opening: "What Heaven imparts is human nature; following nature is the Way."

   

• Honoring Virtue and Righteousness structurally resembles the Mean.

   

• The presence of Duke Mu of Lu Inquires of Zisi corroborates Shen Yue’s earlier claim that "the Mean was extracted from the Zisizi."

   

Thus, these slips confirm both Zisi’s authorship of the Mean and the historical existence of his 23-chapter corpus.

 

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Zisi’s Ritual Practice and Political Stance

Like Confucius, Zisi rigorously observed ritual propriety. Upon learning of his father’s former wife’s death, he wept in the Confucian temple—until a disciple reminded him: "Should one mourn a commoner’s mother in the temple of Confucius?" Acknowledging his error, Zisi immediately moved to another chamber to weep, demonstrating his commitment to ritual precision.

 

Politically, while Confucius sought office (serving in Lu and touring states), Zisi prioritized doctrinal integrity. When Duke Mu of Lu offered him the premiership, Zisi declined to focus on propagating his teachings—a defining divergence from his grandfather’s path.

 

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The Philosophy of the Mean: From Ethic to Cosmology

Zisi’s enduring legacy lies in systematizing the Confucian doctrine of the Mean (Zhongyong)—originally appearing in the Analects but traceable to Yao’s injunction to "hold fast to the Mean" and the Duke of Zhou’s advocacy of "central virtue." Zisi elevated this concept into a universal principle:

 

Core Formulations

1. Psychological Root:

    

   • "Before joy, anger, sorrow, or pleasure are expressed, the mind is calm, unbiased, and balanced—this is called Centrality (Zhong)."

      

   • "When expressed with due measure, free from excess or deficiency—this is called Harmony (He)."

      

2. Cosmological Significance:

    

   • "Centrality is the great foundation of the world; Harmony is its universal path."

      

   • Practiced widely, "Heaven and Earth attain their proper order, and all things flourish."

      

3. Exemplars:

    

   • Yan Hui embodied the Mean by "clinging to the good he attained."

      

   • Shun exemplified wisdom by "examining plain speech, concealing others’ faults, proclaiming their merits, and reconciling extremes to find the middle way for the people."

      

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The Challenge of Practicing the Mean

Zisi acknowledged the difficulty: "The wise overshoot it; the foolish fall short. Just as all eat and drink, few truly discern the flavor." His solution emphasized:

 

Practical Guidance

1. Reciprocity (Shu):
   "Do not impose on others what you yourself do not desire."

    

2. Contextual Ethics:

    

   • "The noble person acts according to their position:

      

     • In wealth/honor: act as befits wealth/honor;

        

     • In poverty/humility: act as befits poverty/humility;

        

     • Among barbarians: act as befits barbarians;

        

     • In adversity: act as befits adversity."

        

3. Non-Attachment:
   "Those above do not oppress; those below do not flatter. Rectify yourself without demanding of others, and resentment vanishes."

    

Poetic Metaphor

Quoting the Book of Songs:

 

"Beneath brocade, wear plain cloth"
—the noble person’s Way appears plain yet grows luminous; the petty person’s seems brilliant but fades.

 

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Key Insights:

• Archaeology as Arbiter: The Guodian slips resolved centuries of authorship disputes, proving Zisi’s direct link to the Mean.

   

• Ritual as Lived Philosophy: Zisi’s correction of his mourning ritual illustrates Confucianism’s balance between emotion and propriety.

   

• Cosmic Ethics: Zisi transformed the Mean from a moral guideline (Analects) into a bridge between human psychology and cosmic order.

   

• Enduring Relevance: His emphasis on contextual ethics ("act according to position") anticipates modern situational morality.

   

This synthesis demonstrates how Zisi’s thought—buttressed by new archaeological evidence—anchors the evolution of Confucianism from ritual practice to metaphysical system.

 

Zisi's Doctrine of the Mean

Records of the Grand Historian: Hereditary House of Confucius notes that Zisi "composed the Doctrine of the Mean while trapped in Song." The Book of Han records Zisizi in 23 chapters, identifying its author as "Ji, grandson of Confucius, teacher to Duke Mu of Lu." Though the original text is lost, the Doctrine of the Mean survived through its inclusion in the Book of Rites. Accounts in Kong Congzi about Zisi’s detention in Song and dialogues with Duke Mu remain dubious.

 

Authorship and Historical Context

Sima Qian attributes the Mean to Zisi, yet linguistic evidence suggests multiple authors:

 

• Phrases like "bearing Mount Hua without heaviness, containing rivers and seas without depletion"

   

• The declaration "now the empire has uniform gauges, script, and conduct"
  reflect Qin-Han rhetorical styles, unlikely in Warring States texts.

   

Core Philosophical Tenets

1. Heaven’s Mandate (天命) and Human Nature
   The text posits that individual fortunes and state prosperity are governed by Heaven’s decree. Human nature, correctly attuned to this mandate, manifests as the Dao (道)—an inseparable guide to life. Perfect cultivation enables harmony with Heaven and Earth.

    

2. Exemplary Figures

    

   • King Wen and Wu: Celebrated for virtuous succession and military triumph ("King Wu inherited the legacy... donned armor to unite the realm"), embodying the fusion of destiny (ming) and virtue (de).

      

   • Confucius: Extolled as the cosmic sage who "emulated Yao-Shun, codified Wen-Wu’s laws, harmonized with celestial rhythms and earthly patterns... nurturing all without conflict." This apotheosis reflects the text’s spiritualized Confucianism.

      

3. The Path of Cultivation

    

   • Immanence of the Dao: "The Dao is not distant from people; those who seek it afar abandon it."

      

   • Graded Practice: "The noble person’s path begins with the commonplace—like distant journeys starting nearby, high ascents starting below... it originates in husband-wife bonds yet penetrates Heaven-Earth mysteries."

      

   • Fulfilling Nature (尽性): "Fulfill your nature → fulfill others’ natures → fulfill all things’ natures → assist Heaven-Earth’s transformations → unite with Heaven-Earth." Confucius’ sagehood exemplifies this jinxing ideal.

      

4. Ethics of Situational Integrity (素位而行)

    

   • "Act according to one’s status: in wealth/honor → act as wealth/honor demands; in poverty/humility → act as poverty/humility demands... The noble person finds contentment everywhere."

      

   • Rejects social climbing: "Those above oppress not; those below flatter not. Rectify yourself without blaming others—thus free from resentment."

      

Theoretical Foundations and Controversies

• Implicit Theory of Good Nature: While avoiding explicit xing shan (性善) declarations, the text assumes innate human goodness—making it Mencius’ precursor.

   

• Mystical Turn: Diverging from Confucius’ reticence on spirits, it claims the Dao "stands verified before ghosts and gods" and praises their "invisible yet omnipresent power." This amplifies Confucianism into idealist metaphysics.

   

Transmission and Canonization

• Han scholars produced Expositions on the Mean (中庸说), later lost.

   

• Southern Dynasties saw commentaries like Dai Yong’s Commentary on the Doctrine of the Mean—all now佚.

   

• The Four Books Epoch: Zhu Xi (1130–1200) elevated the Mean into the Four Books, framing it with Neo-Confucian metaphysics. Yuan dynasty imperial exams enshrined Zhu’s interpretations, cementing its orthodoxy for six centuries.

   

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Key Philosophical Shifts

This text transformed Confucianism from a pragmatic ethos into a comprehensive worldview—bridging human effort and cosmic order through the lens of the Mean. Its synthesis of destiny, nature, and ritual redefined the tradition’s spiritual horizons.