Wu Qi

Introduction to Wu Qi

Wu Qi (died 381 BC) was born in Zuoshi, a region in the state of Wei (modern-day locations include the western part of Dingtao District, Heze City, Shandong Province, and the northwest of Cao County). He was a prominent military strategist, statesman, reformer, and representative figure of the Military School during the early Warring States period in China.

 

Wu Qi initially studied Confucianism under the tutelage of Zeng Shen but later abandoned it to pursue military studies. While serving in the state of Lu, he commanded the Lu army to victory against Qi. He subsequently moved to the state of Wei, where he gained the trust of Marquis Wen of Wei. Leading the Wei forces, he repeatedly defeated Qin, capturing the Hexi region and becoming the first governor of Xihe Commandery. During his tenure, he reformed the military system by creating the elite "Wei's Elite Soldiers," achieving a remarkable record of "64 complete victories in 76 major battles against other states."

 

Later, due to suspicions from Marquis Wu of Wei, Wu Qi defected to the state of Chu. Initially appointed as the governor of Wan, he rose to the position of prime minister (lingyin) within a year under King Dao of Chu. There, he implemented sweeping reforms aimed at curtailing the powers of old nobles and strengthening the military. These radical reforms rapidly enhanced Chu's national power, ushering in an era of unprecedented strength where Chu "pacified the Baiyue in the south, annexed Chen and Cai in the north, repelled the three Jin states, attacked Qin in the west," and even achieved a decisive victory against Wei, symbolically described as "horses drinking from the Yellow River."

 

In 381 BC, the 21st year of King Dao of Chu's reign, the king passed away. Wu Qi, having provoked the old nobility through his rigorous reforms, was assassinated.

 

Having served in Lu, Wei, and Chu, Wu Qi mastered military, legalist, and Confucian philosophies, achieving exceptional accomplishments in both governance and warfare. He is often mentioned alongside Sun Wu as "Sun and Wu" in military discourse. During the reign of Emperor Suzong of Tang, he was enshrined as one of the "Ten Eminent Strategists in the Military Temple." Later, Emperor Huizong of Song posthumously honored him as the "Viscount of Guangzong." His work, The Wuzi (though some scholars allege it was forged by later generations), holds a significant place in classical Chinese military literature.

 

Wu Qi's Wikipedia

full name	Wu Qi
alias	Wu Zi
The era in which it is located	Early Warring States Period (Lu State → Wei State → Chu State)
Ethnic groups	Huaxia ethnic group
one's native heath	The Left Clan of Weiguo (now known as the West of Dingtao District, Heze City, Shandong Province and the Northwest of Cao County)
date of death	381 BC
Main achievements	Establishing the military system in Wei, seizing the land west of the Qin River, and carrying out the Wu Qi Reform in Chu, he was one of the representative figures of pre Qin military strategists who expanded Chu's territory
Main works	Wu Zi (some say it was fabricated under the guise of a pseudonym)
The highest official position	Xihe Shou (Wei), Lingyin (Chu)
title of nobility	Guangzong Bo (posthumously awarded in the Song Dynasty)

 

Wu Qi Abandons Confucianism for Military Studies

Wu Qi was born into an immensely wealthy family in the state of Wei during the early Warring States period. To pursue a political career, he reportedly traveled extensively seeking connections, spending lavishly until he exhausted his family fortune, yet failed to secure any official position. Mocked and slandered by fellow villagers, Wu Qi—overcome with rage—killed more than thirty of his detractors. Fleeing his hometown, he vowed to his mother: "I shall not return to Wei until I become a high minister or chancellor."

 

Wu Qi first studied Confucianism under Zeng Shen, son of Confucius' disciple Zeng Can. When his mother passed away, he did not return home to observe the mourning period as required by Confucian tenets of loyalty and filial piety. Deeming him unfilial, Zeng Shen expelled Wu Qi from his school, declaring him unworthy of being a Confucian disciple. Thereafter, Wu Qi abandoned Confucianism to study military strategy.

 

Wu Qi Serves the Ruler of Lu

In the seventeenth year of Duke Yuan of Lu's reign, Duke Xuan of Qi launched an invasion against Lu. Though Duke Yuan wished to appoint Wu Qi as commander, he harbored doubts because Wu Qi's wife was from Qi. Driven by his ambition for success, Wu Qi killed his wife to demonstrate his loyalty to Lu (The account of wife-killing appears only in Records of the Grand Historian; the earlier Han Feizi records that Wu Qi divorced his wife for unrelated reasons while leaving Wei—not for securing command in Lu—see "Anecdotes" section).

 

Appointed as general, Wu Qi decisively defeated the Qi army. Subsequently, Lu courtiers slandered him to Duke Yuan, denouncing Wu Qi as "cruel and suspicious" and warning that such a crushing victory might provoke "other states to conspire against Lu." They further argued that employing Wu Qi would offend Wei—Lu's fraternal state. As Duke Yuan himself grew suspicious, he dismissed Wu Qi without granting him any official position.

 

Approximately during the early reign of Duke Mu of Lu, Wu Qi departed the state after his patron, the Ji Sun clan, was assassinated—a departure prompted by persuasive counsel.

 

Wu Qi Captures the Hexi Region

After leaving Lu, Wu Qi learned of Marquis Wen of Wei’s wisdom and sought service under him in Wei. When the marquis consulted his minister Li Ke, Li acknowledged that though Wu Qi was "fond of women," his military prowess surpassed even that of Sima Rangju.

 

Around 409 BC (the 37th year of Marquis Wen’s reign), Wu Qi was appointed commander-in-chief. He captured Qin’s Hexi strongholds—Linyin (southeast of modern Dali, Shaanxi), Yuanli (south of Chengcheng, Shaanxi), Luoyin (southwest of Dali, Shaanxi), and Heyang (southeast of Hanyang, Shaanxi)—fortifying these settlements. By 408 BC, his forces advanced deep into Qin territory, reaching as far as Zheng County. The Qin army retreated behind the Luo River, constructing defensive lines along its banks.

 

Notably, Wu Qi shared hardships with his troops—sleeping on rough field embankments and covering himself with leaves to ward off frost—never elevating himself above common soldiers. These conquests, combined with the earlier capture of Fan and Pang (southeast of modern Hancheng, Shaanxi) by Prince Wei Ji in 412 BC, secured all Qin’s Hexi lands for Wei. The region was organized as Xihe Commandery, with Wu Qi appointed its first governor upon chancellor Zhai Huang’s recommendation.

 

Soon after, Marquis Wen ordered Yue Yang to attack Zhongshan Kingdom, with Wu Qi’s Hexi veterans joining the campaign under Prince Wei Ji’s supervision. After three years of fighting, they conquered Zhongshan in 406 BC.

 

As governor, Wu Qi studied Confucianism under Zixia (a disciple of Confucius residing in Xihe) and reformed Wei’s military by creating the elite soldier system (武卒制). Later, his trained troops—commanded by Gongshu Cuo—crushed the allied forces of Han and Zhao. To defend against Qin, Wu Qi also fortified Wu City (southwest of modern Xiaoyi, Shanxi).

 

When Marquis Wen died in 396 BC, his successor Marquis Wu ascended the throne. Though Wu Qi remained governor of Xihe, his exclusion from the chancellorship sparked a famous debate with new chancellor Tian Wen (or Shang Wen) over merit (see "Anecdotes: Tian Wen Debates Chancellorship").

 

In 389 BC, Duke Hui of Qin invaded Wei with 500,000 troops at Yinjin. Wu Qi personally led 50,000 untested soldiers, 500 chariots, and 3,000 cavalry to decisively defeat them (though some scholars note Wu Qi had already fled to Chu by this time; see Battle of Yinjin).

 

The Wuzi credits Wu Qi with "76 major campaigns—64 complete victories, the rest stalemates—expanding territories in all directions by a thousand li [over 500 km]." Though likely exaggerated, it reflects his extraordinary military record.

 

In 387 BC, Marquis Wu dispatched Wu Qi to attack Qi, advancing as far as Lingqiu (modern Tengzhou, Shandong) before withdrawing.

 

Wu Qi's Reforms Strengthen Chu

Around 387 BC or later, Wu Qi—slandered by the favored minister Wang Cuo (some sources mistakenly name Gongshu Cuo)—fell under suspicion of Marquis Wu of Wei and fled south to Chu.

 

King Dao of Chu appointed him governor of the northern stronghold Wan to defend against Han and Wei. Wu Qi diligently inspected counties under his jurisdiction, governing Wan effectively. Within a year, the king promoted him to prime minister (lingyin).

 

As prime minister, Wu Qi launched sweeping reforms:

 

• Enacting published laws to ensure officials and citizens understood legal standards

   

• Revoking noble privileges: Titles and stipends were revoked from nobles whose families had held them for three generations; distant relatives of nobles lost state support and were relocated to sparsely populated frontiers

   

• Streamlining bureaucracy: Redundant positions were eliminated, official salaries reduced, and savings redirected to military strengthening

   

• Purifying governance: Combating corruption and slander to foster devotion to the state

   

• Banning private lobbying to unify Chu's customs

   

• Modernizing construction: Replacing primitive double-board rammed earth technique (liangban yuan) with four-board fortification methods for capital Ying

   

These reforms rapidly amplified Chu's power. The state:

 

• Expanded southward into Baiyue territories (modern southern Jiangxi, Hunan, and Guangxi), boosting cultural-economic exchanges between Central Plains and Lingnan

   

• Consolidated control over former Chen and Cai lands (alternatively: reclaimed parts occupied by Han/Wei or encroached upon revived Chen/Cai states)

   

In 381 BC (King Dao’s 21st year), Wu Qi led Chu forces north to aid Zhao against Wei. Crossing the Liangmen Pass northwest of Daliang, Chu troops camped in Linzhong and watered horses in the Yellow River, severing Wei’s connection between Henei Commandery and its capital Anyi. Coordinating with Zhao’s fire attack on Jipu and capture of Huangcheng, Chu and Zhao crushed Wei’s army.

 

The victory terrified other states—marking the zenith of Wu Qi’s reforms. Yet his policies bitterly resented Chu’s old nobility. Even upgrading the wall-building technique drew condemnation. During an inspection tour, minister Qu Yijiu publicly denounced him. Though effective, Wu Qi’s reforms ignited noble hatred that would soon cost him his life.

 

Wu Qi's Tragic Death

In 381 BC (King Dao of Chu's 21st year), as Chu triumphed on the battlefield, King Dao suddenly died. While mourning at the funeral site, Wu Qi was ambushed by resentful nobles who shot him with arrows. Gravely wounded, he shouted: "See how a commander fights!" Pulling the arrows from his body, he stumbled to the king’s bier and impaled them into the royal corpse, crying: "Ministers rebel against our king!"

 

In the process of killing Wu Qi, the nobles desecrated the king’s remains—a capital crime under Chu law mandating extermination of three generations of kin. The newly enthroned King Su of Chu ordered his prime minister to execute all perpetrators. Over seventy noble families were exterminated in the purge. Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals remarked: "Wu Qi's brilliance shone even in death."

 

Wu Qi’s corpse was subjected to posthumous dismemberment by chariots. His reforms died with him.

 

Posthumous Honors

 

• In 760 AD, Emperor Suzong of Tang enshrined Wu Qi among the "Ten Eminent Strategists" in the Military Temple alongside Jiang Ziya.

   

• During the Song dynasty (1123 AD), he was commemorated alongside seventy-one ancient generals at the Military Temple and posthumously titled "Viscount of Guangzong."

   

• Ming and Song military classics like Biographies of Generals Through Seventeen Histories immortalized his legacy.

   

Historical Assessments of Wu Qi

Li Kui (Reformer of Wei):
"Though greedy and lustful, his military prowess surpassed even Sima Rangju’s."

 

Gongshu Cuo (Wei Statesman):
"To make soldiers stand firm without faltering, unwavering under pressure—this was Wu Qi’s legacy. I could never achieve such command."

 

Mencius:
"In warfare, masters like Sun Bin and Wu Qi; in alliances, strategists like Su Qin and Zhang Yi."

 

Lu Zhonglian (Warring States Diplomat):
"Even when reduced to cannibalism, his soldiers never mutinied—such was the loyalty Wu Qi inspired."

 

Fan Ju (Qin Chancellor):
"Serving King Dao of Chu, Wu Qi upheld justice—rejecting flattery, shielding the loyal, acting without regard for fame. He forged a hegemon, embracing peril for his state."

 

Cai Ze (Qin Strategist):
"He purged Chu of incompetence, abolished useless posts, and ended private lobbying. Unifying customs, he conquered Yangyue, annexed Chen and Cai, silencing itinerant rhetoricians."

 

Han Feizi (Legalist Philosopher):
"Chu declined by rejecting Wu Qi; Qin thrived by adopting Shang Yang."

 

Lin Wujun (Military Theorist):
"Victory lies in exploiting momentum and terrain—none mastered this like Sun Wu and Wu Qi, invincible under heaven."

 

Wei Liao (Qin General):
"Who commands 100,000 to awe the world? Duke Huan. Who with 70,000? Wu Qi. Who with 30,000? Sun Wu."

 

Jia Yi (Han Scholar):
"Generals like Wu Qi and Sun Bin shaped their armies into instruments of conquest."

 

Sima Qian (Grand Historian):
"All speak of Sunzi’s Thirteen Chapters and Wu Qi’s tactics—yet his tragedy proves: those who act cannot always explain; those who explain cannot always act. He warned Marquis Wu of Wei that ‘virtue outweighs terrain,’ but in Chu, his harsh reforms destroyed him. A bitter lesson!"

 

Ban Gu (Han Historian):
"Sun Wu, Sun Bin, Wu Qi, Shang Yang—all won glory through stratagems. But their cult of ‘expediency and deceit’ thrived only in chaotic states. Each died violently, their realms later falling. Retribution follows method."

 

Cao Cao (Wei Warlord):
"A covetous man—killing his wife, abandoning his mother’s funeral. Yet in Wei, he cowed Qin; in Chu, he deterred the Three Jin. Talent eclipsed flaws."

 

Cao Pi (Wei Emperor):
"O Wu Qi! Brilliant in Hexi, yet his corpse defiled—great wit, petty destiny."

 

Emperor Yuan of Jin:
"He enriched Chu by cutting noble privileges to fund soldiers—proof that laws, not kinship, strengthen states."

 

Ge Hong (Jin Philosopher):
"Sun, Wu, Han, Bai—sages of warfare."

 

Luo Binwang (Tang Poet):
"We weep for Wu Qi in Wei, mourn Lian Po in Zhao."

 

Sima Zhen (Tang Historian):
"In Wei, he ruled Hexi wisely; in Chu, his severity left only a bloodstained legacy."

 

Zhang Yue (Tang Chancellor):
"In learning and strategy, he rivaled Han Xin."

 

Liu Changqing (Tang Poet):
"Who now tends soldiers’ wounds? Our age scorns such devotion."

 

Bai Juyi (Tang Poet):
"Wu Qi abandoned his mother’s coffin—beasts show more piety!"

 

Fang Gan (Tang Poet):
"Not just Wu Qi or Rangju—none in history matched their art."

 

Zhao Ying (Later Jin Historian):
"Sun, Wu, Han, Bai—the pantheon of generals."

 

Zeng Gong (Song Scholar):
"Warring States strategists peddled easy victories. Su Qin, Shang Yang, Sun Bin, Wu Qi—all perished by their own methods, dooming their states. Folly’s legacy endures."

 

Zhang Yu (Song Commentator):
"Treat soldiers like sons, and they will die with you—Wu Qi shared their hardships. Aid the state fully, and it strengthens—his defense of Hexi proved it."

 

Xu Jun (Yuan Poet):
"His tactics matched Sima Rangju’s, yet killing wife and mother horrified all. Foreseeing his fate, he bowed to Tian Wen."

 

Chen Yuanjing (Yuan Scholar):
"Soldiers fought fiercely, Hexi was secured—but he knew: defense lies not in terrain, but in virtue. One phrase stilled wars."

 

Li Zhi (Ming Philosopher):
"With Wu Qi, Wei grew strong; with Wu Qi, Chu became hegemon."

 

Cheng Dengji (Ming Scholar):
"Sun Bin and Wu Qi—tactical geniuses; Rangju and Wei Liao—unfathomable strategists."

 

Huang Daozhou (Ming Historian):
"A ruthless man: murdering critics, abandoning his mother, killing his wife. Yet his soldiers adored him; Qin feared his name. His ‘Virtue over Terrain’ echoed sages. Exiled to Chu, he expanded borders—but provoked nobles to his doom."

 

Guo Moruo (Modern Historian):
"Wu Qi’s imprint is indelible—a strategist equal to Sunzi, a reformer rivaling Shang Yang. Had his Chu reforms succeeded, China might have been unified under Chu, not Qin."

 

Zhang Shunhui (Modern Scholar):
"Though brief, his reforms reshaped history. Early Wei and Chu’s power sprang from his vision."

 

Yang Kuan (Modern Historian):
"A rare statesman-commander: he built Wei’s hegemony and expanded Chu’s realm. Pity his reforms were cut short."