The Military Strategies of Wu Qi is a military treatise from the early Warring States period, authored by the strategist Wu Qi. The extant text comprises six chapters, totaling approximately 5,000 characters, primarily documenting principles of military administration and strategic theories. Wu Qi’s military philosophy epitomizes the evolving warfare perspectives of the rising landlord class, representing the era’s most advanced military thought.
Also known as Wu Zi, The Military Strategies of Wu Qi stands as a pivotal military classic composed by the renowned Warring States general Wu Qi. It is regarded as one of the definitive works reflecting ancient Chinese military doctrine. The text focuses on the philosophy of warfare, opposing both reckless militarism and the neglect of defense in favor of moral governance. It advocates that a state’s prosperity hinges on cultivating civil virtues internally while strengthening military preparedness externally.
The Military Strategies of Wu Qi emphasizes discipline as the foundation of victory, insisting on strict enforcement of rewards and punishments. It proposes that armies adopt policies such as "heavy rewards for advancement and severe penalties for retreat," ensuring absolute adherence to orders and unbreakable discipline. The text stresses that "training and discipline are paramount in warfare," advocating rigorous drills to hone soldiers' combat skills and enhance overall effectiveness. It highlights the importance of recruiting skilled personnel, organizing troops based on physical strength and expertise, and optimizing unit composition. Additionally, it demands that commanders master both civil and martial virtues, embodying the "five principles of caution" (rationality, preparedness, decisiveness, vigilance, and restraint) and mastering four critical strategic elements: morale, terrain, situational adaptability, and resource management.
The Military Strategies of Wu Qi is a renowned ancient Chinese military text, included among the Seven Military Classics. Traditionally attributed to the strategist Wu Qi of the early Warring States period, it began circulating by the late Warring States era. The Book of Han·Treatise on Literature records "48 chapters by Wu Qi," while the Book of Sui·Bibliographical Records and New Book of Tang·Bibliographical Records list it as a single volume. Modern editions, such as the Song dynasty facsimile in the Xu Gu Yi Cong Shu (Continuation of Ancient Lost Texts) and Ming-Qing printed versions, preserve six chapters divided into two volumes: "State Governance," "Enemy Assessment," "Military Administration," "On Generalship," "Adaptation," and "Motivating Troops."
The Military Strategies of Wu Qi emerged during a period of significant evolution in warfare and military theory following the consolidation of the feudal system. Changes in army composition, the widespread adoption of iron weapons and crossbows, and the rise of cavalry necessitated new tactical approaches. The text reflects the war doctrines, military organization, and strategic principles of the ascending landlord class.
Advocating "cultivating civil virtues internally while strengthening military preparedness externally" (from the Song facsimile edition), Wu Zi integrates governance and warfare. "Civil virtues" encompass dao (moral order), yi (righteousness), li (ritual propriety), and ren (benevolence), applied to govern both military and civilian affairs. It asserts that "when people cherish their lands and respect their officials, and the populace supports their ruler while opposing rival states, victory is assured," emphasizing harmony between the military and the state. "Military preparedness" entails prioritizing vigilance as the foundation of national security and recruiting elite talents to guard against unforeseen threats. The text categorizes wars as righteous, coercive, aggressive, tyrannical, or rebellious, urging prudent attitudes toward conflict and rejecting reckless militarism.
It stresses that victory lies not in numerical superiority but in disciplined organization. A well-trained army should "maintain decorum in camp, project authority in action, advance irresistibly, retreat untraceably, move rhythmically, respond seamlessly to commands, and retain formation even when fragmented." Key principles include selecting skilled warriors as the army’s backbone, rewarding them with rank and material benefits for their families, and assigning roles based on individual strengths: "the short wield spears, the tall bear crossbows, the strong carry banners, the brave hold drums, the weak serve as auxiliaries, and the wise act as strategists." Troops are organized by locality, with mutual accountability among units. Training follows a cascading model: "One trained soldier teaches ten; ten teach a hundred… until the entire army masters combat." Strict discipline enforces "heavy rewards for advancement and severe penalties for retreat," ensuring absolute obedience. Commanders must share hardships with troops, reward merit, encourage the unproven, and console bereaved families to foster loyalty and a "zeal for battle." Leaders should appoint capable, balanced individuals skilled in both governance and warfare, capable of inspiring troops and outwitting foes.
The text emphasizes tailoring tactics to enemy vulnerabilities. For each of the six major states—Qi, Qin, Chu, Yan, Han, and Zhao—it prescribes distinct strategies based on their political, geographical, and military traits. Examples include dividing forces to flank Qi, luring Qin troops into disarray before ambushing them, disrupting Chu’s morale through rapid raids and feigned retreats, pressuring Yan with calculated advances and withdrawals, and exhausting Han and Zhao by harassing their formations.
It advocates "assessing enemy weaknesses to strike decisively," listing eight scenarios warranting immediate attack and thirteen requiring "swift, unquestioned strikes" to exploit opportunities. Conversely, six situations demand avoidance without hesitation. The text warns that "hesitation is the greatest peril in war; disaster stems from doubt." It also details adaptive tactics for combating superior forces, fighting in valleys or water, besieging cities, and pioneering specialized discussions on cavalry and horse management.
Building upon and expanding ideas from Sun Tzu’s Art of War, Wu Zi historically rivaled its predecessor, earning the dual acclaim of "Sun-Wu Military Doctrine." Revered by strategists across dynasties, it now circulates globally in Japanese, English, French, Russian, and other translations.
Though only six chapters of The Military Strategies of Wu Qi survive, they present invaluable military doctrines.
The chapter State Governance asserts that national strength requires "cultivating civil virtues internally while strengthening military preparedness externally." "Civil virtues" refer to political and moral governance, while "military preparedness" denotes defense and warfare. The text stresses their interdependence, citing historical examples: the ancient tribe Cheng Sang perished by neglecting military readiness, while the Xia-era tribe You Hu fell due to reckless militarism without moral governance. This balanced perspective reflects a progressive view of statecraft.
Emphasizing political education, Wu Zi states: "Rulers of old first taught the people to unify them." Successful governance achieves four harmonies: national unity, military cohesion, battlefield coordination, and tactical synchronization. Only then can rulers command loyalty, inspiring citizens to "glory in advancing to death and shame in retreating to life." The "Four Virtues"—dao (moral order), yi (righteousness), li (ritual propriety), and ren (benevolence)—are deemed vital for national prosperity: "Their cultivation brings triumph; their neglect ensures decline."
The text also analyzes war’s origins, identifying five causes: contests for prestige, profit, vengeance, internal strife, and famine. It categorizes conflicts into five types: righteous (to suppress tyranny), coercive (to assert dominance), aggressive (unprovoked invasions), tyrannical (greed-driven conquests), and rebellious (uprisings against authority). While its classification remains rudimentary, this effort to distinguish just wars from unjust ones marks an advancement over Sun Tzu’s theories.
A further contribution is the axiom: "Victory is easy; preserving it is hard." Military triumphs, achieved through force, demand less effort than sustaining peace, which requires political, economic, and ideological consolidation. Given war’s immense human and material costs, Wu Zi warns that excessive victories deplete resources and erode stability, urging rulers to wage war prudently—a forward-thinking stance.
In Enemy Assessment, Wu Qi advises the Marquis of Wei: "National security begins with vigilance," prioritizing preparedness. He analyzes the Seven Warring States’ geography, politics, culture, economy, and military tactics, urging tailored strategies against each.
Wu Zi mandates thorough enemy reconnaissance. Immediate attacks are advised in scenarios such as:
Enemy forces marching exhaustively in extreme weather;
Prolonged campaigns depleting supplies and morale;
Outbreaks of disease without reinforcements;
Disorganized formations or incomplete encampments.
Conversely, avoidance is prescribed if the enemy boasts:
Vast territories and wealth;
Disciplined, merit-based leadership;
Superior numbers and equipment;
Strong alliances.
This embodies the tactical principle: "Advance when advantageous; retreat when challenged."
The text stresses discerning enemies’ true conditions: "Observe their exterior to gauge their interior; study their movements to predict their intentions." It advocates exploiting vulnerabilities—such as disarray during marches, mealtimes, or river crossings—by striking decisively with elite vanguards.
Wu Qi further emphasizes tactical flexibility. Against larger forces, avoid engagement on open terrain but ambush in confined spaces. For "numerous and valiant" enemies, deploy decoy units to feign retreats, then encircle them. When trapped, concentrate forces against weaker foes or divide against stronger ones. In forests, valleys, or marshes, strike swiftly with archers leading charges, adapting dynamically to shifting conditions.
Wu Qi redefines generalship, demanding leaders master both civil and martial arts while embodying the "Five Disciplines":
Rationality: Commanding multitudes as effortlessly as few;
Preparedness: Maintaining vigilance as if perpetually at war;
Decisiveness: Facing death without hesitation;
Vigilance: Post-victory caution as if battle just began;
Restraint: Enforcing concise, effective laws.
Generals must also master the "Four Strategic Pillars":
Morale Management (inspiring troops);
Terrain Exploitation (leveraging geography);
Situational Ingenuity (tactical adaptability);
Resource Stewardship (sustaining military strength).
True "paragon generals" additionally exhibit dignity, virtue, compassion, and courage. Such leaders, deemed national pillars, determine a state’s rise or fall.
Wu Qi also classifies enemy commanders—gullible, greedy, impulsive, arrogant, or indecisive—and prescribes tailored counterstrategies: deception, bribery, division, intimidation, or ambush. To test unknown adversaries, he advocates probing attacks to expose their competence, avoiding "wise generals" while crushing "foolish ones" regardless of numbers—a novel approach in classical military thought.
Military Administration declares: "Victory lies in discipline." A disciplined army "maintains order in camp, projects authority in action, advances irresistibly, retreats untraceably, and reforms ranks seamlessly even when shattered"—earning the title "Father-Son Army" for its unbreakable bonds.
Without discipline, "even a million troops are useless." Rigorous training is thus paramount: "One soldier trains ten; ten train a hundred… until the entire army masters combat." Drills include:
Formation Mastery: Adapting to square, circular, or dynamic battle arrays;
Command Compliance: Responding instantly to drums, flags, and orders;
Unit Accountability: Enforcing mutual oversight within squads.
While advocating strict penalties, Wu Qi prioritizes proactive motivation through rewards. Rulers should publicly honor功臣 (meritorious officers) with banquets and familial honors, while consoling martyrs’ families annually. This fosters a culture where citizens "relish orders, crave battle, and embrace death"—contrasting sharply with later Legalist reliance on fear.
These principles, blending Confucian benevolence with military rigor, reflect early Warring States thought, preserving remnants of the Sima Fa's "humanistic foundations" before the rise of harsher doctrines.
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