The Foundation of Benevolence

The ancients held benevolence as fundamental and governed state affairs with righteousness—this was called governance. When governance failed to achieve its aims, authority was employed. Authority invariably stems from war, not from harmony or benevolence. Thus, it is permissible to execute evildoers to bring peace to the people; to attack another state out of concern for its people; and to wage war to stop war. Therefore, a ruler should cultivate benevolence to earn the people’s affection, righteousness to earn their admiration, wisdom to earn their reliance, courage to earn their emulation, and sincerity to earn their trust. In this way, he secures their devotion internally to defend the state and projects deterrence externally to overcome enemies.

The principles of warfare are: avoid mobilizing troops during farming seasons or epidemics, to protect one’s own people; refrain from attacking a state in mourning or suffering famine, to show compassion for its people; abstain from launching campaigns in winter or summer, to spare both sides’ populations. Thus, though a state may be powerful, warmongering ensures its ruin; though the land may be at peace, forgetting war invites peril. Even in times of peace, military drills through seasonal hunts are held, and lords must train their troops in spring and autumn—all to remain ever-prepared.

In ancient times, pursuing a fleeing enemy never exceeded a hundred paces, and chasing a retreating force never stretched beyond ninety li—a gesture of courtesy. Sparing those who could no longer fight and showing mercy to the wounded demonstrated benevolence. Waiting for the enemy to complete their formations before attacking displayed good faith. Fighting for justice rather than petty gains embodied righteousness. Granting amnesty to surrendering foes revealed courage. Foreseeing the course and outcome of war marked wisdom. Gathering the people periodically to instruct them in these six virtues—propriety, benevolence, faith, righteousness, courage, and wisdom—served as the foundation for governance and warfare since antiquity.

The sage-kings of old ruled by conforming to natural order, adapting to geography, appointing the virtuous, establishing offices with clear duties, enfeoffing lords, and ranking them by nobility with corresponding privileges. Thus, the feudal lords submitted willingly, foreign lands sought allegiance, and neither litigation nor war arose—such was the realm governed by the sage-kings’ benevolence.

Next, the worthy kings instituted rites, music, and laws, deploying five punishments to govern and armies to punish injustice. They toured the domains of lords, inspected regions, convened meetings, and scrutinized adherence to the rites and laws. For rulers who defied orders, violated statutes, corrupted morals, defied heaven, or persecuted the meritorious, a decree was issued among the states to proclaim their crimes before heaven, earth, and ancestors. The prime minister then summoned the lords’ armies, declaring: “The state of X has strayed from the Way. Raise your forces to arrive at X by the appointed date and join the Son of Heaven in punishing the offender.” Officials would announce to the troops: “In the enemy’s land, desecrate no shrines, hunt no game, destroy no dams, burn no homes, fell no trees, and seize no livestock, grain, or tools. Escort the elderly and children home unharmed. Spare the young if they resist not. Tend the wounded and release them.” After punishing the guilty, the Son of Heaven and lords would restore order to the state, appointing wise leaders and reinstating its offices.

To govern the lords, a hegemon employs six methods: adjusting fief sizes to control them, enforcing laws to bind them, using rites to draw them close, offering gifts to please them, deploying strategists to aid them, and intimidating them with might. He unites them through shared interests, ensuring large states cherish small ones and small ones revere large ones—thus harmony prevails.

When convening the lords, nine prohibitions are proclaimed:

For the strong bullying the weak, diminish them.

For slaughtering the virtuous and oppressing the people, attack them.

For tyranny at home and aggression abroad, depose them.

For leaving fields barren and driving people to flight, reduce their lands.

For defying authority behind natural barriers, march to their borders in warning.

For killing kin, prosecute them under law.

For exiling or murdering rulers, exterminate their factions and raze their strongholds.

For flouting prohibitions and laws, isolate and sanction them.

For moral depravity, bestial in conduct, annihilate their state.

The Foundation of Benevolence's Pictures

Chapter One of Sima Fa: Ren Ben