The Works of Mencius is a classic Confucian text, authored by Mencius and his disciples, including Wan Zhang and Gongsun Chou, during the mid-Warring States period. It was first documented in Zhao Qi’s Annotations to The Works of Mencius: “This book was written by Mencius, hence collectively referred to as The Works of Mencius.” During the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi classified The Works of Mencius as one of the Four Books (the others being The Great Learning, The Doctrine of the Mean, and The Analects).
The Book of Han·Treatise on Literature records eleven chapters of The Works of Mencius, though only seven volumes divided into fourteen chapters survive today, totaling over 35,000 characters across 260 sections. Tradition holds that four additional chapters, titled The Outer Chapters of The Works of Mencius, were lost (the extant version is a forgery by the Ming scholar Yao Shilin). The text documents the political, educational, philosophical, and ethical ideas of Mencius and his disciples, as well as their political activities. Ancient imperial examinations primarily tested knowledge of the Four Books and the Five Classics.
As part of the Hundred Classics of Chinese Excellent Traditional Culture series, The Works of Mencius was republished in 2021.
The Works of Mencius comprises seven chapters, compiling the discourses of Mencius during the Warring States period. It records his debates with rival schools of thought, teachings to disciples, and efforts to persuade rulers, collaboratively compiled by Mencius and his disciples (including Wan Zhang). The text documents Mencius’ governance philosophy, political strategies (benevolent governance, distinctions between kingly and hegemon rule, people-centered principles, rectifying rulers’ faults, and the hierarchy prioritizing the people above the state and the ruler), and political activities. Composed around the mid-Warring States period, it stands as a foundational Confucian classic.
Rooted in the theory of innate goodness, the work advocates moral governance. During the Southern Song Dynasty, Zhu Xi grouped The Works of Mencius with The Analects, The Great Learning, and The Doctrine of the Mean to form the Four Books. From the Song to Qing dynasties, it became a household text, akin to a standard textbook.
The Works of Mencius is the longest and most voluminous of the Four Books, spanning over 35,000 characters, and remained a mandatory subject in imperial examinations until the late Qing Dynasty. Its theories are both profound and comprehensive, while its prose is vigorous and elegant. (The Five Classics include The Book of Songs, The Book of Documents, The Book of Rites, The Book of Changes, and The Spring and Autumn Annals.) As a record of Mencius’ words and deeds, it is a pivotal Confucian text. Its chapters are: (I) King Hui of Liang (Upper and Lower), (II) Gongsun Chou (Upper and Lower), (III) Duke Wen of Teng (Upper and Lower), (IV) Li Lou (Upper and Lower), (V) Wan Zhang (Upper and Lower), (VI) Gaozi (Upper and Lower), and (VII) Fulfilling the Mind (Upper and Lower).
The text is renowned for its majestic style, emotional intensity, and compelling rhetoric, exerting profound influence as a cornerstone of Confucian literature.
The Records of the Grand Historian·Biographies of Mencius and Xunzi states: “Mencius, finding no alignment with rulers, retired with disciples like Wan Zhang to expound The Book of Songs and The Book of Documents, elucidate Confucius’ ideas, and compose the seven chapters of The Works of Mencius.” This attributes the authorship to Mencius himself. Zhao Qi’s Annotations to The Works of Mencius asserts: “This book was written by Mencius, hence collectively referred to as The Works of Mencius,” adding: “Retiring to compile his teachings, he engaged in dialogues with disciples like Gongsun Chou and Wan Zhang, addressing doubts and formulating doctrines, thereby authoring seven chapters.” This supports Mencius’ direct authorship.
Qing scholar Yan Ruoqu’s Chronological Study of Mencius’ Life also affirms Mencius’ authorship, noting: “The Analects was compiled by disciples, hence detailing Confucius’ demeanor. The seven chapters, penned by Mencius himself, focus solely on his words and actions.” However, scrutiny reveals that rulers mentioned in the text—such as Kings Hui and Xiang of Liang, King Xuan of Qi, Dukes Mu of Zou, Wen of Teng, and Ping of Lu—are referred to by their posthumous titles, unlikely used during Mencius’ lifetime. Additionally, disciples like Lezhengzi, Gongduzi, and Wuluzi are honorifically addressed with “Zi,” a practice inconsistent with Mencius’ self-reference. This suggests the text was likely finalized by his disciples, though its completion dates to the mid-Warring States period.
Major annotated editions of The Works of Mencius include:
Commentaries on The Works of Mencius (14 volumes, Sibu Beiyao edition),
Collected Commentaries on The Works of Mencius (7 volumes, Sibu Beiyao edition),
Exegesis of The Works of Mencius (30 volumes, Sibu Beiyao edition),
And the modern Translation and Annotation of The Works of Mencius by Yang Bojun (Zhonghua Book Company edition).
The language of The Works of Mencius is lucid, straightforward, and accessible, yet precise and concise. As a prose work, it excels in argumentation and demonstrates remarkable artistic expressiveness, embodying the qualities of literary prose. Its dialectical essays skillfully employ logical reasoning, with Mencius adeptly utilizing analogical arguments. Often adopting a strategy of feigned concession and repeated interrogation, he guides opponents through winding paths into his pre-established conclusions, as exemplified in King Hui of Liang (Part II).
A defining stylistic feature of The Works of Mencius is its majestic and vigorous momentum, rooted in Mencius’ moral fortitude and intellectual integrity. This "flood-like qi" (spiritual vitality) enables his rhetoric to overpower adversaries intellectually, transcending political authority, material desires, and worldly constraints with unwavering righteousness and fearlessness. The text extensively employs rhetorical devices such as parallel structures, antithetical phrases, and repetitive cadences to amplify its rhetorical force. The prose surges with an irresistible momentum, like surging rivers, overwhelming in its grandeur and uncontainable in its persuasive power.
Mencius asserted that "the people are the most noble, the state secondary, and the ruler the least," emphasizing that governments must safeguard the people’s welfare and rulers prioritize their care. Thus, the "Mandate of Heaven" resides in the people’s will, not the ruler’s. If a ruler is tyrannical, the people have the right to overthrow him; but if the ruler governs justly, the people must fulfill their duties.
Mencius advocated benevolent governance by following the "kingly way" of ancient sage-kings (Yao, Shun, Yu, Tang, Kings Wen and Wu, King Cheng, and the Duke of Zhou). He believed this model would universalize benevolent rule.
Mencius argued that benevolent governance begins with cultivating a benevolent heart. He posited that human "compassionate instincts" naturally lead to compassionate governance. Benevolent rule, essential for unifying the realm, manifests as a "kingly way" ensuring people’s prosperity. Implementing this requires honoring the virtuous and appointing the capable.
While Confucius framed "benevolence" (ren) as a conscious moral virtue, Mencius expanded it into an educative force. Rulers must cultivate moral character to practice benevolent governance, hence his call for "virtuous leaders." He rejected hegemonic rule enforced by violence, promoting instead moral persuasion to alleviate suffering and resolve social conflicts.
Mencius idealized the "Well-Field System" (jingtian), where land was state-owned, allocated to families for cultivation, with communal plots farmed collectively as tax. This ensured peasants "permanent property," stabilizing society.
Mencius stressed educating "outstanding talents under heaven" through moral and character formation, stating: "Diligently uphold schooling, instilling filial piety and fraternal duty." He viewed self-cultivation as foundational to learning but held that human goodness, though innate, cannot be externally imposed—education inspires, yet true virtue arises through introspection. In pedagogy, he advocated organic development guided by inherent potential.
Mencius also emphasized the learning environment, asserting that nurturing students in virtuous settings with self-driven education ensures success. His ideas profoundly influenced later Neo-Confucianism, particularly the "Inner Sage" doctrine, which posits humanity’s innate goodness. By expanding this goodness and restraining desires through self-reflection, one achieves moral perfection. Song-Ming Neo-Confucians like Cheng Hao, Cheng Yi, Lu Jiuyuan, and Wang Yangming inherited this legacy.
Mencius viewed the world as inherently moral, with Heaven (tian) as the ultimate ethical standard. Heaven manifests in human nature (xing), and through self-cultivation, one may "know Heaven," achieving unity with it.
Mencius’ "innate goodness" theory builds on Confucian "benevolence." He addressed Confucius’ unresolved question of moral origins by identifying the "Four Beginnings" (compassion, shame, courtesy, and discernment) as innate moral consciousness. These "beginnings" prove that ethical awareness is inherent, completing Confucius’ framework.
Mencius argued that the "Four Beginnings" reside in human nature—the essence distinguishing humans from beasts. Immorality arises when selfish desires obscure this nature. Thus, rejecting personal gain to uphold societal righteousness fosters individual virtue.
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